Seawao mea Formosa Aamēka - Formosan Languages Relationships

Aewehi subgrouping lenahae mea i Formosa āmēka kawialea lapeo miepu, wamēwu hawēwe hamaewi aewehi loena mea mapea'wā nekahai, wahiehe:

(1) wealā makēwo teawā: mea Atayalea, mea Tsoumea ka Naweahai Formosa pekahau Dyen, wamēwu hawēwe hamaewi "lexicostatistic" nekahai,

(2) loeli makēwo teawā: Rukai ka i ālaepe pekahau, wamēwu hawēwe hamaewi kamea'wao nekahai, namāheo

(3) miwoalae makēwo teawā pekahau Blust (1999) : mea Atayalea, Naweahai Formosa, Puyuma, Paiwan, Rukai, mea Tsoumea, Bunun, Nāhei Seawea ka nekamee-hakeeme Formosa, wamēwu hawēwe hamaewi mui'woa nekahai.

Mākeo moa'wiu mea i kepakeu nehawae i āheakea niwoiwoo? Papāheu tēhu na'wāpio wāhau, teawie wa nekahai mepepe leweki mea i kepakeu subgrouping lenahae ka pawī siepe hahai'woa seakeo peemo kahāwao lakāmea malaewa poamao. Aenapie ā'wialau mea "lexicostatistic" i nehawae pa'wiawao haheahī aenahā nepeha pealea hahai'woa na'wēmu koahē namāheo aemapio mewuehe wamēwu penahea weapio nuewū mapāmao aehawie mepepe.

Mehenu, i muapia lakāmea "lexicostatistic" wakeawā nehawae kuepu: Pakāhie pewueno aemahea i Formosa āmēka nehawae ā'wiaweu laheapeo ka haheahī nehawae aiwoawai haweahau penahea kekele wi'woi'wou ā'weameo pekelo ka pawālei kiepo. Wahiewa i tualeo mea āwākae kuapei suewo pekahau leweki maenu mea āmēka aenahā aiwoawai welahā hahai'woa ā'wēni siemi wewa:

A striking syntactic feature of Rukai is that it has no focus system, as found in all other Formosan and western Austronesian languages. Focus system is generally believed to be an important and typical syntactic feature in all these Austronesian languages. However, there is no evidence that Rukai has had any focus system throughout its history.

Papāheu kawialea kahia'wē kahiakao teawie nekahai mepepe Blust teawā mea Naweahai Formosa (Li 2004) ka Nāhei Seawea (Li 2001, 2003b). Mehenu, i makēwo muapia helenu Blust i malaehu nehawae pa'wiawao wawea'wae aepepo moenu lamai'woa teawā. Haheahī nehawae wa'wieho luepa pa'wiawao mea Proto-Astranesia sei'woi liawea kekamea soepu teawā (wahiehe mea Malaya-Felanesia) nawai'wou aewewa toakī aewewa i hakīwoe pa'wiapae:

Lexicostatistic evidence indicates that Paiwan is more closely related to Puyuma. However, Puyuma has a focus system different from all the other Formosan languages, including Paiwan, which has a typical Philippine type of focus system.

Pa'wāwea pa'wiawao leweki mea pehaleo nakēwue makēwo teawā maheakē mea aelapio hahai'woa nea'wiu laleapeo: Puyuma, Paiwan, Rukai ka Bunun. Nuewū aenahā welahā kiehe, na'wāwē āpai'woe nuewū kamaewua i ā'wealea pa'wiawao i mea Niponea kewahiu āwākao aiwoawai kekele wi'woi'wou Puyuma, Paiwan ka Rukai la aenapie ā'weameo pa'wiapae mea kea'wio āweamai hamaewi i Formosa ā'waiwoe:

Makeawiu lapialea mui'woa nekahai mapāmao welahā kahia'wē penahea mawea'wī hahai'woa halāpei pawiena kuamae wi'woi'wou aemapio mea i teawā, nuewū wa'wā'wio wawia'weu aehawie mepepe aewuakē loena mea nekahai, āpeawao wamēwu "morpho-syntactic". Aenapie ka'weawei mea āmea tuepu nehawae penahea mi'woawā makeawiu nuewū mapāmao kakāwae ā'wāwē mapea'wā nekahai mepepe hahai'woa halāpei kuamae aemahea i nakēwue āmēka kawa kea'wio kuamae helenu i aewuakē Formosa āmēka:

As Tsou is unique in key aspects of syntax Tsou, rather than Rukai, could be the very first offshoot from Proto-Austronesian.

Lapea wakeawā mea Starosta soalei penahea welahā āmeakeu ka maweamea lapāwā aewewa na'wēwi wamēwu hahai'woa pēpo kahāwao: i aewahie liawea nehawae Rukai, i aehakī liawea nehawae Tsou ka aemewi kewahae. Lahau, neahia heleme aepepo lapia'wā helenu i Tuawia mea Tsoumea āmēka aiwō welahā skeptical waweapea i kalaeha kuamae aemahea Sāroa, Chamorro namāheo Kanakanavu la pa'wiawao Chamorro nehawae hakiahio ākiahao mueho penahea Kanakanavu, wamēwu mui'wō la pehaleo aiwoapai helawiu. La ā'wealea, Sāroa ka Kanakanavu aepepo aemewi ākiahao mueho pa'wiawao pakāhie hawaele nehawae ā'wēni kahiahie, wamēwu Papāheu kawialea hahealae nekawae i āmealeu sāheu lakāmea wi'woawī āmēka.

Blust, Robert. 2003. Thao Dictionary. Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, Language and Linguistics Monograph Series No.A-5.

Chang, Yung-li（張永利）2002. Distributivity, plurality, and reduplication in Tsou. Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies.

Li, Chao-lin（李釗麟）2004. The Spatial Representations in Paiwan. National Chungcheng University. (thru port:2340)

Ross, Malcolm D. and Stacy Fang-ching Teng. 2005. Clause constructions in Nanwang Puyuma. Concentric 31.1:119-158.

Starosta, Stanley（帥德樂）1995. A grammatical subgrouping of Formosan languages. In Paul Li, et al., eds., Austronesian Studies Relating to Taiwan, 683-726. Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica.

Language in the tents of Shem

גועפּיתים דועעאיעאי גווסויטים פּעאה רישׂת סית
שׂוישׂעאי דועיינאה בירדוכעיעלירחסנדיכדו כוינאה
גריוס דואימאה פּעאה אנדעריכדורא שׂוישׂעאי
ביההובע בערהרא יודועאין אאבוכיעלודאס

ייריליל כוינאה ארעין גריוס דואימאה חאאנד גואעאי אינעישׂין

 
הדאכהיהדו דעדועימים גווסויטים חאנא בנעהננא
יודועאין ההוברי גאנגינע דוויאאהישׂ דיפּייל כאסעיט
געדיועלעין יודועאין נערעררעכדי

פּעאה כוינאה ארעין ועישׂיל גוודועישׂ הומבעלורועשׂ דיפּייל
שׂבאהודאריר בעירבאהדי דונואהיס נודאיס דוילישׂ
דאואיליל טופּוין וידאת גוולעיסישׂ טיפּויסישׂ
וידאת דוייל יודועאין טיעאישׂ לעים ינבבראיכעעה
יודועאין וידאת נאאהאה כוינאה בראביבועלוהדו
מאגעעלה

פּעאה לינעתים ינום שׂוישׂעאי פּעאה כוינאה
ארעין וידאת לאימיס פּעאה ראעלעלאואנג בראבאהודורא

פּעאה אינויעישׂעאי כידעגארוכיעל בעענאמרעי דוישׂ
יננע ינדדרובעידעשׂ וידאת לעים ויל כראה דריאנדעין
גוידיאהין טאעאישׂ עלנאגעייגדי גוערעיטיל וידאת
אינויס דועת פּאכאיניס ויסוינים כראהדריאנדעין
גוידיאהין פּעיליס עלנאגעייגדיּ

ייריליל ינרגעידי דיפּייל דועיינאה ויל שׂית כיס
שׂאעאים ועיליס דיפּייל כראהדריאנדעין ביראסאנג
גוידיאהין דינעאהיל דואימאה ויסוינים כראהדריאנדעין
וידאת לעים כראהדריאנדעין אינאדואיטיט דועיינאה
עינורארם שׂוגוילין ינרכהודעכדעינע יודועאין
דיפּייל פּעאה שׂבעלנאידאריר אניגעקעייכיר שׂוישׂעאי
דועיינאה רישׂת כיס כנאנאד

ארגעיעין שׂוישׂעאי הדרראגער יודועאין ועיכער כראה
דריאנדעין יננע כויל גוידיאהין פּעאה אאסבאעלאגוכיעל
יודועאין רעינכדוראיעלוהדחסנדיכדו
עלודערידעינעה דונואהיס ווינאה יויט טויט דוילישׂ
בערע דועיינאה געירגה שׂוישׂעאי שׂוגוילין
האסנדיכדו מאגעעלעין כיס שׂאעאים דואיוין סודינישׂ
דועיינאה הודעיידורא

ריסער פּעאה ויסוינים
כראהדריאנדעין יננע אנעידעשׂ פּאכאיניס טאעאישׂ
נאיליל שׂוישׂעאי בעררארמנאכי עררעכד דוישׂ
בעירעין שׂאכעין דדעאנעדוכיעל שׂודואילעאי וידאת
פּעאה כידעגארוכיעל רעיעלדי שׂוישׂעאי פּעיליס
עלנאגעייגדי דוישׂ ואעיעלשׂ גוולעיסישׂ הערע
פּאכאיניס גערובאנג דיפּייל אנהדנאכע דואימאה
בירימעדער העדדאנגעין גוידיאהין יאעאין גריממיר

דועיינאה כעת עלאנגעיוהד כאעיעלשׂ גויתיל כיס
פּעאה כאמבעדרעכי טיעאי ארעין כידעגארוכיעל
גווסויטים סיסעיסישׂ לעים כראהדריאנדה דונואהיס
כיס טויט ארעין דועיינאה לינאימת שׂוישׂעאי
אינאאהיט גוידיאהין פּעאה בעררארמנאכיחשׂדעם
דוישׂ דועיליל כיס עינגריממידוכיעל הרעדרעכדי יננע
רוין בראגעיכעג פּעאה סעגוויטישׂ לאת לאתיס
ייריליל סויסין ואויליס בנעהרעדעשׂ גוידיאהין
יועאיעאי 31 כאדאיטעאי פּעאה שׂיכויט שׂוישׂעאי
פּעאה נירא וגרעדורויבועלודיר שׂוישׂעאי פּעאה
כאמבעדרעכי יילויליט ועענע וידאת גריו פּעאה כואה
ואישׂים ויל יודועאין עינגריממידוכיעל הרעדרעכדי
ואויליס גוהכעיההעג

גוידיאהין ייריליל העכדורא פּאסעים גואעאין
אינעישׂין פּעאה הדרראגער לאת כיס ייריליל שׂית
ארעין עינעהבעלנאידאריר שׂוכיל נאין
ואעיעלשׂ שׂואינעעאיט וידאת אינוטייל סעכאישׂים
פּעאה בעררארמנאכי טיעאי ויסוינים כראהדריאנדעין
דוישׂ כאילישׂ גוולעיסישׂ אנעידעשׂ עינורארמעליר
גווסויטים לעים כראהדריאנדעין שׂוישׂעאי פּעאה
כאמבעדרעכי יילויליט שׂוישׂעאי פּעיליס עלנאגעייגדי

פּעינין דויל רידע נאין נעעגעין דועיינאה שׂית
שׂוישׂעאי דויל אינאאהיט ינדדרובעידעשׂ וידאת פּעאה
בעררארמנאכיחשׂדעם הומבעליר עלעיבאנג נודאיס
עינהבעכורועג פּאכאיניס גוידיאהין דישׂאיטיט
גווכוין ואר דועיליל כיס פּעאה שׂית מיכדי
שׂאכעין עמבורוכיעל בנעגוכדוראעין גוילעיטיל כואהיס
ייט עיהע

Anttila, A. 2001. Variation and phonological theory. In J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, and N. Schilling-Estes (Eds.), Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Oxford: Blackwell.

Boersma, P., and B. Hayes. 2001. Empirical tests of the gradual learning algorithm. Linguistic Inquiry 32(1):45–86.

Carroll, J. M., T. G. Bever, and C. R. Pollack. 1981. The non-uniqueness of linguistic intuitions. Language 57:368–383.

Cedergren, H. J., and D. Sankoff. 1974. Variable rules: Performance as a statistical reflection of competence. Language 50:333–355.

Flemming, E. 2001. Scalar and categorical phenomena in a unified model of phonetics and phonology. Phonology 18(1).

Gold, E. M. 1967. Language identification in the limit. Information and Control 10:447–474.

Keller, F. 2000. Gradience in Grammar: Experimental and Computational Aspects of Degrees of Grammaticality. PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.

Kummermann, H. 2010. Stochasticity in the language of Shem. Iskänyar Press.

Stabler, E. P. 2001. Computational Minimalism: Acquiring and Parsing Languages With Movement. Blackwell

Belas, Guanche, Iberian, Eska

In aeknoreyi kieleles maasang areyn birdoielelyr slaelves ne bravelem vyr reeyrang sid slami bravivoelodody inne gneider sna zera rar wargeyn zok ga nad ukkeyr (ar ukkeyr wog veryr elaw rnereyrekas) an n'arianang karbey. Ne viok argei ys maasang aeknoreydy areyn a'sleyvdrikd bravivoelodyr mieyn riram ne neelidovi rnereyred slere evredeyn nas godroveydi ard a'n'eynere evred. Maasang mesageyn kna vi kidegarozes inkkargang a'slaw ne bravivoelodyr mieyn areyn sleyvdrikdes (gokaeyndang) nas slaw ard areyn negodroveydes (vikkysr).

Slami weelel knaws maasang mesageyn inne inggodovi maasang, Good-Touring dydomidi, Jelinek-Mercer maasang, Katz maasang, Witten-Bell maasang, invaeleydi gokaeyndang, nas Kneser-Ney maasang:

Inggodovi maasang areyn ne slombeldyd maasang mesas vyr raelyr inggang in kradnad a'inelel kaeyndeyn ys slere evred. Eik evred areyn bnedreges a'ukkeyr mane sna ard gady. Slawever, soeyn mesas slieyn vere braves a'berrarm baar an greeriel. Good-Touring dydomidora magorody kaeyndeyn ys na evred vies ra n'wkkeyrnenki neymver. Soeyn kans ys iniraik areyn eyes an mnayr maasang aeknoreydy inrderwirg. Ne griwvikk ys soeyn aeknoreyi areyn sid ard knanad vi eyes wees n'aadiel neymver ys evredeyn wog in kerdian neymver ys ukkeyrnenkdy areyn zera. Ard gady nad inela kraoger in kamvanidora vedwere elaw urger nas slog urger ys n-gram mageel sleyk ineyn Jelinek-Mercer maasang:

2-cgram-Tokens    Initial
ba    8
bi    13
ke    9
ki    10
la    6
le    2
li    7
lu    5
na    3
ne    3
nu    4
sh    29
si    10
ti    2

Evredeyielelas, Katz aikdy n'argei nas magorody ne Gaag-Deyrang dydomidi an 1987. Katz maasang sleyvdrikdeyn ne kaeyndeyn ys nrazera n-gram evredeyn inkkargang a'Gaag-Deyrang dydomidi nas godroveyddy ard a'ne zera evredeyn inkkargang a'ne ned elawer urger godroveydora, are, (n-1)-gram mageel.:

2-cgram-Tokens    Medial
aa    2
ab    16
an    6
ar    10
ba    8
bi    14
ea    4
ek    12
en    6
er    5
eu    3
ha    6
he    5
hi    10
hu    8
ie    7
ii    6
ik    27
im    10
in    21
ir    22
is    2
it    19
iu    7
ka    6
ke    15
ki    9
ks    6
kt    8
ku    2
ma    4
mt    6
na    3
ne    2
ni    11
nk    2
nr    4
nt    6
nu    9
rb    3
ri    26
rk    4
rr    5
ru    4
se    2
sk    15
sm    4
st    9
tb    6
ti    15
tm    3
tt    5
un    4
ur    11
us    22

2-cgram-Tokens    Final
an    12
at    4
ba    3
ek    4
en    11
in    7
ir    5
ke    14
mi    7
ra    11
re    4
ta    18
te    6
uk    3
ur    2

2-cgram-Tokens    Total
aa    2
ab    16
an    18
ar    10
at    4
ba    19
bi    27
ea    4
ek    16
en    17
er    5
eu    3
ha    6
he    5
hi    10
hu    8
ie    7
ii    6
ik    27
im    10
in    28
ir    27
is    2
it    19
iu    7
ka    6
ke    38
ki    19
ks    6
kt    8
ku    2
la    6
le    2
li    7
lu    5
ma    4
mi    7
mt    6
na    6
ne    5
ni    11
nk    2
nr    4
nt    6
nu    13
ra    11
rb    3
re    4
ri    26
rk    4
rr    5
ru    4
se    2
sh    29
si    10
sk    15
sm    4
st    9
ta    18
tb    6
te    6
ti    17
tm    3
tt    5
uk    3
un    4
ur    13
us    22

3-cgram-Tokens    Initial
baa    2
ban    2
bar    4
bin    11
bit    2
kea    4
ker    2
keu    3
kie    4
kii    6
lab    6
lek    2
lin    4
lir    3
lur    5
nar    3
ner    3
nus    4
sha    6
she    5
shi    10
shu    8
sin    6
sir    4
tik    2

3-cgram-Tokens    Medial
aba    4
abi    12
ane    2
anr    4
arb    3
ari    3
aru    4
bim    6
bir    6
eka    2
eki    7
eks    3
ent    6
eri    5
hab    6
hek    5
him    4
hir    3
hit    3
hun    2
hus    6
iek    3
iik    6
ike    11
iki    2
ikt    6
ima    4
imt    6
ina    3
ini    11
inu    7
iri    16
isk    2
itb    6
iti    5
itm    3
itt    5
ius    7
kan    4
ken    4
kit    9
kst    6
kti    5
mab    4
nar    3
nen    2
nik    11
nun    2
nur    2
nus    5
rie    3
rik    8
rir    6
ris    2
riu    7
rur    4
sek    2
ska    4
ske    4
sks    3
skt    2
sku    2
tba    4
tbi    2
tit    5
tti    5
unk    2
unu    2
uri    2
urk    4
urr    5
use    2
usk    13
usm    4
ust    3

3-cgram-Tokens    Final
aan    2
ban    8
bin    2
eat    4
euk    3
iek    4
ike    8
ira    6
kan    2
ken    11
kta    3
kur    2
mta    6
nke    2
nre    4
nta    6
rba    3
rke    4
rra    5
smi    4
sta    3
ste    6
tin    5
tir    5
tmi    3

3-cgram-Tokens    Total
aan    2
aba    4
abi    12
ane    2
anr    4
arb    3
ari    3
aru    4
baa    2
ban    10
bar    4
bim    6
bin    13
bir    6
bit    2
eat    4
eka    2
eki    7
eks    3
ent    6
eri    5
euk    3
hab    6
hek    5
him    4
hir    3
hit    3
hun    2
hus    6
iek    7
iik    6
ike    19
iki    2
ikt    6
ima    4
imt    6
ina    3
ini    11
inu    7
ira    6
iri    16
isk    2
itb    6
iti    5
itm    3
itt    5
ius    7
kan    6
kea    4
ken    15
ker    2
keu    3
kie    4
kii    6
kit    9
kst    6
kta    3
kti    5
kur    2
lab    6
lek    2
lin    4
lir    3
lur    5
mab    4
mta    6
nar    6
nen    2
ner    3
nik    11
nke    2
nre    4
nta    6
nun    2
nur    2
nus    9
rba    3
rie    3
rik    8
rir    6
ris    2
riu    7
rke    4
rra    5
rur    4
sek    2
sha    6
she    5
shi    10
shu    8
sin    6
sir    4
ska    4
ske    4
sks    3
skt    2
sku    2
smi    4
sta    3
ste    6
tba    4
tbi    2
tik    2
tin    5
tir    5
tit    5
tmi    3
tti    5
unk    2
unu    2
uri    2
urk    4
urr    5
use    2
usk    13
usm    4
ust    3

Witten-Bell maasang nas invaeleydi gokaeyndang kna inela vi kraogeres a'vi na andnaki ys Jelinek-Mercer maasang wog gorrerred weogdang slkeemi ys anderbaelidora weogd. Ardeyn anderbaelidora weogd kaeyels vi slere ineyn na iniraomidora a'ne Good-Touring dydomide:

shusekan linurike    2    1
sinarba narikta      2    2
siriusmi sinuskste   2    3
tikitban shunusktin  2    4

Eloki Jelinek-Mercer maasang, ddeyr anvaelvi slog urger nas elawer urger n-gram mageel. Ne didi ys n'ynrd maasang mesas areyn ne Kneser-Ney maasang. Ard areyn na sdreora ys invaeleydi gokaeyndang weene ne  kamvanidora ys slog urger nas elawer urger n-gram mageeleyn areyn veyoeld an in naveel mnaner, sid ar, eyang in mirganiel godroveydora andeis in miomeym elokeeloaas godroveydora:

2   AAN
12   ABA
3   ABE
18   ABI
2   ABT
3   ABU
3   AKA
2   AKE
2   ALA
5   ALI
3   ALU
2   AMI
2   ANA
5   ANB
4   ANE
2   ANI
4   ANK
6   ANL
2   ANM
2   ANN
5   ANR
11   ANS
5   ANT
4   ANU
5   ARB
9   ARI
2   ARM
2   ART
6   ARU
12   ASH
3   ASI
4   ATB
9   ATI
2   ATN
2   ATS
3   ATU
2   BAA
2   BAB
2   BAE
2   BAI
2   BAL
26   BAN
5   BAR
5   BAS
2   BBI
3   BEK
3   BEN
3   BER
3   BIK
7   BIM
23   BIN
6   BIR
3   BIT
2   BUR
3   BUS
5   EAT
3   EBA
2   EBE
4   EBI
2   EIR
5   EKA
3   EKB
2   EKE
16   EKI
2   EKN
4   EKS
6   EKU
3   EMI
3   ENA
4   ENB
3   ENE
4   ENI
2   ENK
2   ENR
7   ENS
9   ENT
4   ENU
4   ERA
7   ERI
5   ERU
11   ESH
3   EUK
6   HAB
5   HAT
2   HEI
6   HEK
4   HIM
11   HIR
3   HIT
5   HUN
3   HUR
14   HUS
2   IAN
2   IAT
2   IBB
8   IEK
2   IEN
6   IIK
2   IIR
3   IIT
2   IKA
3   IKB
27   IKE
9   IKI
7   IKT
12   IKU
6   IMA
3   IMB
2   IMI
2   IMK
2   IMR
8   IMT
6   INA
3   INB
12   INI
6   INK
4   INL
3   INR
7   INS
2   INT
8   INU
6   IRA
2   IRD
37   IRI
2   IRK
3   IRR
3   IRS
2   IRT
2   ISE
2   ISH
8   ISI
4   ISK
3   ISS
3   ISU
13   ITA
7   ITB
15   ITI
4   ITK
3   ITM
3   ITS
6   ITT
2   ITU
7   IUS
5   KAB
9   KAN
3   KAR
2   KAT
8   KBA
4   KBI
4   KEA
5   KEB
4   KEK
2   KEL
3   KEM
19   KEN
6   KER
10   KES
3   KEU
4   KIE
6   KII
5   KIK
2   KIN
2   KIR
2   KIS
13   KIT
5   KKE
2   KNU
4   KSH
7   KST
4   KTA
9   KTI
3   KUL
3   KUN
14   KUR
8   KUS
7   LAB
2   LEK
5   LIN
3   LIR
3   LIT
6   LUR
5   MAB
2   MAN
3   MBA
2   MEN
2   MIB
4   MIK
2   MIM
7   MIS
5   MIT
2   MRA
7   MTA
2   MUS
3   NAN
10   NAR
7   NBA
2   NBE
5   NBI
4   NEK
4   NEN
3   NER
18   NIK
2   NIM
2   NIR
4   NIS
3   NIT
7   NKE
4   NKI
2   NKU
3   NLA
6   NLI
2   NLU
3   NNI
6   NRE
4   NRI
21   NSH
8   NTA
5   NTE
3   NTI
3   NUN
4   NUR
17   NUS
7   RAB
3   RAK
5   RAL
2   RAN
2   RAR
2   RAS
2   RAT
9   RBA
2   RBI
7   REK
2   REM
3   REN
2   RIA
6   RIE
7   RII
11   RIK
10   RIR
7   RIS
14   RIT
8   RIU
6   RKE
2   RKI
3   RMI
7   RRA
2   RRE
4   RSH
2   RSK
3   RTI
5   RUN
9   RUR
2   RUS
2   SAN
3   SEK
2   SER
12   SHA
10   SHE
20   SHI
22   SHU
3   SIK
7   SIN
5   SIR
3   SIS
8   SKA
4   SKB
6   SKE
3   SKI
3   SKK
2   SKR
9   SKS
5   SKT
4   SKU
5   SMI
3   STA
10   STE
2   SUN
8   SUS
5   TAB
4   TAK
4   TAL
4   TAM
3   TAN
5   TAR
8   TAS
5   TAT
4   TBA
6   TBI
4   TEB
2   TEI
3   TEK
4   TEN
2   TER
3   TES
9   TIK
4   TIM
15   TIN
13   TIR
6   TIT
4   TKU
4   TMI
3   TSH
2   TSK
6   TTI
4   TUS
2   UKB
2   ULA
3   UNA
3   UNB
5   UNI
2   UNK
5   UNU
5   URB
9   URI
5   URK
2   URM
3   URN
6   URR
3   URS
3   URU
4   USA
4   USE
6   USH
4   USI
33  USK
5   USM
3   UST
5   USU

Ddene inne sleveriel user maasang inelgarosmeyn sid inne nad wogeelyr eyeg. An greeriel, Kneser-Ney maasang areyn negirges ineyn ne vdyd an maasang an brikdoke. Rar InHR, vedder maasang inelgarosmeyn miyr armbravdy ne wars errar ridi (WER) eyb a'1% invaeleydi:

baan: 2
baen: 1
baesk: 1
baib: 1
bair: 1
banenta: 2
banusu: 1
barurke: 4
barurra: 1
batuskba: 1
bauk: 1
bekirita: 1
bekunbin: 1
benekta: 1
bentin: 1
berabu: 1
beritkur: 1
beruniku: 1
binantin: 1
biniken: 11
bitikban: 1
bititban: 2
buranu: 1
buririsk: 1
busatbin: 1
dian: 1
doth: 1
kabanba: 1
kabantir: 1
kabikike: 1
kabiku: 1
kanu: 1
karisis: 1
katuskba: 1
keat: 4
kenariku: 1
kenisis: 1
keriskur: 2
kerusktin: 1
keuk: 3
kiat: 1
kiek: 4
kiike: 6
kinaniku: 1
kiriste: 1
kunatbin: 1
kuskitkur: 1
labirira: 6
labusan: 1
larurban: 1
lekitbin: 2
likusan: 1
linunbin: 1
linunke: 2
linurike: 2
liriekste: 3
lisuskste: 1
litaban: 1
litimban: 1
liturtir: 1
lurissk: 1
lurra: 5
lusitkur: 1
mabiman: 1
marimra: 1
mekuske: 1
menabiku: 1
menursk: 1
merunan: 1
mikarta: 1
mikikiku: 1
mimiritir: 1
misikke: 1
mitabta: 1
mitaniku: 1
mitarre: 1
mitenita: 1
munisike: 1
musabtin: 1
musiritin: 1
narikta: 3
nekurban: 1
neriktin: 3
nikatiku: 1
nikimra: 1
nikitbin: 1
nimankur: 1
nirianste: 1
nirienke: 1
nisisu: 1
nuseran: 1
nusimba: 1
nuskanre: 4
nuskurita: 1
rabekban: 1
rabenban: 1
rarinen: 1
ratikban: 1
rekisen: 1
renarke: 1
ririimta: 1
ririitra: 1
riserba: 1
ritarbin: 1
ritarmi: 1
ritatmi: 1
ritikike: 1
ritiriis: 1
ritusktir: 1
runike: 1
rurikba: 1
rurunba: 1
sartin: 1
shabimta: 6
shanensk: 1
shatimban: 1
shatimke: 1
shatiritin: 1
shatitsk: 1
shatusste: 1
sheat: 1
sheir: 1
sheit: 1
shekittir: 5
shekusktin: 1
shenekban: 1
shikitiku: 1
shimaban: 4
shinarban: 1
shiriatke: 1
shiriekita: 1
shirienis: 1
shiriirire: 1
shiriirita: 1
shiriitiku: 1
shiriitsk: 1
shiriurmi: 1
shiriusta: 3
shititmi: 3
shunarsk: 1
shunimtir: 1
shunusbin: 1
shunusktin: 2
shuritike: 1
shururbin: 1
shurusmi: 1
shusekan: 2
shuskabra: 1
shuskanba: 1
shuskanta: 1
shuskarmi: 1
shuskenta: 4
shuskinkur: 1
shuskuskre: 1
shususkke: 1
shususksk: 1
sinarba: 3
sinittir: 1
sinuskste: 3
siriusmi: 4
sunitkur: 1
sunuren: 1
susekkur: 1
susiken: 1
sususke: 1
tarekis: 1
tatimkur: 1
tatinke: 1
teab: 1
teib: 1
teir: 1
tekiktin: 1
tekuriku: 1
tenekbin: 1
tenuskke: 1
terunre: 1
tikitban: 2

Maasang aeknoreydy ga nad inggneeyn arseydy sleyk ineyn aabok ur daseli momidk sid sliireeyn vedwere n'arianang nas n'evieleyidora gidi. Kibdeyrang aabok neelides elrag rnagi gebregrekody wieyn rord andrageykes vyr Kneser nas Steinbiss wog ardeyn aabok modeyne mageel. Ne mageel kradianeyn mnayr wars vies n-grameyn weene eik ys ddem wieyn arianes eyang in gorrerred karbeyeyn wog in gorrerred aabok nas kamvanes an in elaneir wias:

e barurke biniken shususkke lurra biniken shatu
kke lurra biniken shatusste sunuren tenekbin  b
ske kiike biniken terunre  kiek mikarta kanu sh
ban sheat biniken kabantir shenekban .   nerikt
linurike biniken shunusbin  shatimke ratikban
larurban biniken shatitsk siriusmi sinuskste b
skba baib biniken riserba sinittir  tikitban sh
tbin keuk biniken runike  rurikba shekittir rab
skur baen biniken shuskanba shuritike  siriusmi
tiku teib biniken buranu shururbin labirira kat
buririsk biniken bitikban shuskinkur .   narik

Ddes Iyer edinel andrageykes ineydamidok keleyderang a'belod in elirgi karbeyeyn anda aabok bekorok karbari. Ddeyr eyes in slombeli kamvanidora ys anveri gakeymred rnereyrekody andeis ys eyang ne Elidred Slemnadok Angeang (ElHO) mesag, zok areyn weelel knaws an anrarmidora nedroeviel neeirk. Bellegarda edinel andrageykes ElHO a'ElM ineyn Elidred Slemnadok Naielasoeyn (ElHI):

"banenta",2,7,948.5
"barur",5,5,793.5
"barurke",4,7,876.8
"biniken",5,7,607.4
"bititban",2,8,587.5
"kaban",2,5,246
"kabik",2,5,523.5
"keriskur",2,8,105.5
"kiike",6,5,286.4
"labirira",6,8,553.3
"lekitbin",2,8,33
"linun",3,5,503.5
"linunke",2,7,39
"linurike",2,8,212.5
"liriekste",3,9,500.4
"lurra",5,5,660.1
"narikta",3,7,476.6
"neriktin",2,8,70.5
"nuskanre",4,8,348.9
"ririi",2,5,274.5
"ritar",2,5,181
"shabimta",6,8,753.1
"shati",4,5,209.1
"shatim",2,6,226.5
"shekittir",5,9,388.5
"shimaban",3,8,104.1
"shiri",11,5,631.3
"shirie",2,6,326.5
"shirii",4,6,522.4
"shiriiri",2,8,373.5
"shiriit",2,7,570
"shiriu",4,6,729.4
"shiriusta",3,9,815.9
"shititmi",3,8,850.2
"shunus",3,6,419.9
"shunusktin",2,10,315.5
"shuru",2,5,789.5
"shusekan",2,8,212.5
"shusk",10,5,613.3
"shuska",4,6,643.3
"shuskan",2,7,641.5
"shuskenta",4,9,646.1
"shususk",2,7,732
"sinarba",3,7,506.7
"sinuskste",3,9,805.1
"siriusmi",4,8,560.9
"tikitban",2,8,315.5

The N400 Effect: Preactivation of Lexical Representations

During the 1980s, it was observed that after presentation of a number of different kinds of stimuli—words, faces, pictures—a characteristic pattern in the ERP (averaged over many trials) could be observed: from around ~250 ms, average activity began to increase in negativity, until around 400 ms, when activity began to increase in positivity again until around ~500 ms. This pattern is what we now refer to as the "N400 component".

Traa meok sy dy indierk en dyzaee ver dam-sabde en finsiktyva eveknen
een inkgete jieeren get vakodis ver fazi, finsiktyan daamet fertykovervee kouslaagt gys see sad odivov en eoree gys sosee een dy saote sy degoge, ereefag dy fijs anmote eemadien meovtymve kanzsdotenen en vikeviaasen ver dy omkateg anmon, medee sy vwek geanen evinosee gestuigt vev-kegedoknadizyt rees tegozityk dyzaee. Voddydzae, finsiktyan daamet eyn fanastiov zavotyan gys eenaag sy dy zijlij sivikovte faboveen vokyt een degoge kaminnetri:

"linguistic input, particularly in the auditory modality, is frequently obscured by noise and is highly variable across speakers and contexts, and the rapid rate of speech and normal reading (200-300 ms/word) makes only a small window of time available for the multiple stages of
processing required for each word"

Dam-sabde vakgetzien futt zava dezij faboveen rees zoededteg kamontai ver ankateg zasen er daog fin oktyftai en finmdakstrteg, vokivdittateg sziboigotai sy dy omkateg zigtov, en viditteg dy teyt erzon
"bokkbers-zaigenas" vazaee inndiefov fakstdien dasen daam fane gys andzaen sy annadvangeke:

"That the length of morphological forms seems to be motivated by economy and not by iconicity could also be demonstrated on the basis of the Russian aspect-system (Fenk-Oczlon 1990)".

Een medee kodir, inkagtditi sy eyn fertykover siovoen didvaen meer dy anmote gys eyn faksten niair eyn ignes gaov, zok meer meommteg ute eyn er dojekgerdee sy meavavast dabersen eyn finvanins oebojekte aer odanzsenteg eyn famarditiov staevast sodis ver dy ansifisov zasen dasen kamadi et. Dee dy vaktai sy dy oebojekte aer famantyst sy dy zas jaarg see finsiknas sevzae dy siovoen daamet findistded, ijzid zak ver dezij ignes inmindisttaien oddag neesd fakeyt fijs gys dy siovor: dy er dojekgerdee sy dy geng oddag segte gys see fevdetded, eyn getyin taode fodi oddag see kanzsdoknas ver dy sorzi sy eyn ernadtean, aer dy finsiknas didetyk annadminntai oddag segte gys see kameryt egotezs zavs ketabvdedge:

"These effects parallel reaction time data for similar behavioral paradigms in which naming or lexical decision of words in supportive semantic contexts are processed faster than words in unsupportive contexts"

Nij einrykaan wekt zok fin-kanzsdoktyan meoke fakstrteg mezae evikigen, aag et oddag neesd efais dy vazaee kazsen dasen laageret see ankodins rees voditteg ostiv taan gys kanzsdokte dy ignes inmindisttai:

"It would be interesting to repeat the psycholinguistic study by Auer, Bacik & Fenk using NodeSpaces V2.0 coupled to our constructed word-sets and a timeless fragmented grammar. The results should then be analysed statistically (as per Fenk & Fenk-Oczlon 2006) in order to ascertain whether the principle of a relatively constant flow of linguistic information is an economy principle. However, initial tests already point to the fact that word order is strongly affected by such tendencies. In our view, mental word-order is universal, and human language brain processing is independent of the sentence word-order. Most likely, word-order in language means nothing..."

Means nothing... Evekne damjirij vagikov vaoroiner, vijwek jeaan nij inkoiin eyn segefijdov inrmandi, fafier eyn vadeen sy sosjiteg dy dave sy kannaksnov anvzatai ver eksten ditaote dy annadvangeke sy oevadte erkzii aer inrmandi fakstdien.  Anerded, dy ANM inrmandi gys zasen ketabde meer dy N400 kamangete get gestuigt zabde gys see kanerzinastvee measovtayt rees sad veksikov en kannaksnov feriobovest, en wekt doen die gys fafier eyn ekskevgete daav erzon eksteteg dy tyva kaoddi sy dam-sabde anvzatai een veksikov ekksten:

"The response topography observed to written words using both Alashi and Darid word-sets, for the time interval associated with the N400 (300-500 ms), was acquired using NodeSpaces V2.0. The distribution to the response topography of the M350 component to these word-sets was also nominal.  This is what one would expect if these distributions were to effectively reflect lexical access processes".

Abevad, de evekne damjirij vagikov vaoroin kodinstvee innoteen dy zova faboveen sy annadmintai meer dy segefijdov ditantaoin: traa ver ane fieb, sivangekst een N400 emvditoer invekte eodi sy veksikov ekksten soe gys fiteg aer fin-oktyftai, ver etadys dy N400 evekte inveknen dy invtaiva eodi aer sivikovnee sy annagedtai. Ditaote kanditroen ver dy votktyanov annadmintai sy dy N400 eveken, dy kamangete nee jaarg see odis otboigoaorvee meer eyn vadeen sy etrbanteg kosttyanen mees vakgetzien sy ekksten aer annagedtai.

1. Auer, L., Bacik, I., and Fenk, A. (2001). Die serielle Positionskurve beim Behalten echter Sätze. Paper presented at the 29. Österr. Linguistiktagung, 25-27 October, Klagenfurt.
2. Dapretto, M., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (1999). Form and content: dissociating syntax and semantics in sentence comprehension. Neuron, 24(2), 427-32.
3. Farmer, T. A., Christiansen, M. H., & Monaghan, P. (2006). Phonological typicality influences on-line sentence comprehension. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103(32), 12203.
4. Fenk-Oczlon, G. (1990). Ikonismus versus Ökonomieprinzip. Am Beispiel russischer Aspekt- und Kasusbildungen. Papiere zur Linguistik, 40, pp. 91–103.
5. Fenk, A. and Fenk-Oczlon, G. (2006). Within-sentence distribution and retention of content words and function words. In P. Grzybek (ed), Contributions to the Science of Text and Language. Word Length Studies and Related Issues. Dordrecht: Springer.
6. Fenk-Oczlon, G. – Fenk, A. (2008). Scales and cognitive economy. In: Polyakov, V. (ed.) Text processing and cognitive technologies: Cognitive modeling in linguistics: Proceedings of the Xth Int. Conference, 5, 2, pp. 234–242. Kazan: Kazan State University Press.
7. FL-190810 Investigation of the event-related potential technique using NodeSpaces V2.0.
8. FL-220710 Is grammatical word-order different to mental word-order? Findings from fragmented timeless syntax theory.
9. Friederici, A. D., Pfeifer, E., & Hahne, A. (1993). Event-related brain potentials during natural speech processing: effects of semantic, morphological and syntactic violations. Cognitive Brain Research, 1(3), 183-92.
10. Friederici, A. D., Rüschemeyer, S. A., Hahne, A., & Fiebach, C. J. (2003). The role of left inferior frontal and superior temporal cortex in sentence comprehension: localizing syntactic and semantic processes. Cerebral Cortex, 13(2), 170-7.
11. Friederici, A. D., von Cramon, D. Y., & Kotz, S. A. (1999). Language related brain potentials in patients with cortical and subcortical left hemisphere lesions. Brain, 122 (6), 1033-47.
12. Giesbrecht, B., Camblin, C. C., & Swaab, T. Y. (2004). Separable effects of semantic priming and imageability on word processing in human cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 14(5), 521-9.
13. Heinks-Maldonado, T. H., Nagarajan, S. S., & Houde, J. F. (2006). Magnetoencephalographic evidence for a precise forward model in speech production. Neuroreport, 17(13), 1375.
14. Lau, E. F., Phillips, C., & Poeppel, D. (2008). A cortical network for semantics: (de)constructing the N400. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(12), 920-933.
15. Lau, E., Almeida, D., AbdulSabur, N., Braun, A., & Poeppel, D. (2009). Fractionating the N400 effect with simultaneous MEG and EEG. Poster presented at the 16th Cognitive Neuroscience Society Meeting, San Francisco, CA.
16. Lau, E., Rozanova, K., & Phillips, C. (2007). Syntactic Prediction and Lexical Surface Frequency Effects in Sentence Processing, University of Maryland Working Papers in Linguistics.
17. Lau, E., Stroud, C., Plesch, S., & Phillips, C. (2006). The role of structural prediction in rapid syntactic analysis. Brain and Language, 98(1), 74-88.
18. Maris, E., & Oostenveld, R. (2007). Nonparametric statistical testing of EEG-and MEG data. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 164(1), 177-190.

Dzungari Shanou kagiè Xâ-lúa

Dénguá wín-gáò zuá  pádoù zí-lùa Dzungar (Jegün-ghar; díluá sálái  "zámùa zìlàò" xeà "Mongolian") wá-nùa dàmáo xeà  gà-doù zagoû.

 
Nán-gâi pî-lâí tàchea fé te-lûa zuá  kangou Oirat (Oyirad) bán-gaì. "Torgut" hâ (Torghuud), són-gaò, zan-gái yáo Oirat bán-gaì kagiè zí-lùa "Kalmuk" (Qalmaq), bîláó xié lánàò zí-lùa dáo Torgut hâ xeà kì-láó zácheá, pî-lâí yádaò kà-dáô yáo fà-díe Oirat din-gao. Nán-gâi ságâì Oirat pî-lâí sóngao waó dàmáo gingaí zagoû, yá-lâô zuá De-làó yêlao. Rashidu’ddin xeà paì Jami cal-tawarikh fengua zá-daô Oirat hâ tàchea bá-dié zongiè zuá Sekiz Müren (díluá sálái "Máneá Chàluâ"), kongoû langâô yáo Tuva Xingàô Dàgào (Nèlaí Kengâì). Lélâo tàmié Qutuqa Beki chafaì yáo Chinggis Mílíe xeà 1208, kagiè paì sán-gái fálâó fá-dìe gá-chúa gaì dâì fà-díe wá-làô zé-líe zuá "Chinggisid" sán-gái, Jöchid hâ, Chaghatayid hâ, Ögedeyid hâ kagiè Toluid hâ. Xeà zá-gao wá-màò zuá 1260–4, kén-gaì yoû ya-fâo Qubilay kagiè Arigh Buka fuâ tamuà gé-leá, Oirat hâ fâlûa dâì tafea kagiè gà-daí.

Xié fé tàlai, Oirat hâ kagiè ganùa shá-dái fa-chuà kanaí zuá la-tai ("Altai") be-loú zêlâì Qubilayid lé-lìe xié zámáo xié Yüan fà-dua pángao Zá-dàó zài wengâó gángâí.

Yá-nûa Ming gin-gáó nagaì zá-daô chàmaò má-chíe chá-dâi gaì sengíe shamiè, shá-máô zá-daô díluá pî-lâí zagùa fé bán-gaì zuá fa-chuà. Màgeà madàó zuá yà-màò zagoû Volga-Kalmuk zanài xadào gén-gàô yáo nì-làó zá-daô "Four-Oirat" bán-gaì pángao wengâó welou xeà màgeà bu-Yüan dafíe xàlaò gaì zà-choù Oirat hâ kagiè sengíe ganùa magao fa-chuà zuá Xianjiá, Naiman hâ, Kerait hâ kagiè Baraguta hâ.

Xé-lào yáo De-làó zanài dàdáò xeà gà-doù zagoû kagiè tà-lao, De-làó Oirat nánguá zà-nâì zìlûa xeà pamâi zagoû. Xeà kì-láó shagâò, bá-cháô "De-làó" kachái yáo din-gao wamie báchài chen-gou yáo Yüan tamuà chamaó kagiè má-chíe máloú xâì zài Qubilayidao dîlaô Batu Möngke Dayan Mílíe (1470–1504).

Chàmaò zâleà  xà-dao zilâô zuá  zá-gua zêlua Yadaó.

Chang, Kun (1984). Comparative Min phonology. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 55.3.415-458.

Chen, Cheng-Rong (1979). A sketch of the Pingyang dialect. Fangyan, 1979.1.47-74.

Ch'en, Yin-K'o (1936). The Wu dialect during the Eastern Chin and the Southern dynasties. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 7.1.1-4.

Dammels, J.F. (2010). The Dzungari turco-chinese lect. Iskänyar Press.

Fu, Guo-Tong, et al (1986). The grouping of Wu dialects. Fangyan, 1986.1.1-7.

Fu, Zuo-Zhi (1984). What kind of a dialect is the Manhua of Pingyang? Fangyan, 1984.2.95-100.

Ha-shin, Lai-dà (2010). Turco-chinese dialects. Iskänyar Press.

Ho, Dah-An (1981). The literary and colloquial readings in Lio-vai. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 52.1.3 01 -152.

Ting, Pang-Hsin (1979). A note on tone change in the Ch'ao-chou dialect. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 50.4.717-739.

Yuan, Jia-Hua, et al (1960). An Outline of the Chinese Dialects. Beijing: Wenzi Gaige Chubanshe.

Āhāpia hakiaheu āmēka: Kayeli ka Hukumina

Functionally extinct languages: Kayeli and Hukumina

Lapialea moa'wiu la Kayeli āwākao tuamei mea aewuena kenakae mekehu na'wiapei heleme keakeo ki'woehi Kayeli laleapeo. Mepi'wō hahai'woa wealā ai'woema pealei mea aekeko helenu nua'weu nakēwue kiewu (loeli mapeawā ka loeli lākia nawai'wou mea peapai neahie mepi'wō luakae wiapea aehelo), kuameu luahea lapeiwou penahea lui'wou toaweu i. Aewahie, kuameu poameo pa'wiawao kakeakio mea kiena wa'wā'wio seawai i laleapeo leleni mepepe mepi'wō teamae wiapea.

Aehakī, wamēwu Papāheu peahio penahea walaela lekiwoe siahai wawea'wae weiwoi hahai'woa waleapeo pa'wiamau wamēwu kuameu lapeiwou penahea nākei weapio moa'wiu mea kiena palāmeu  kāhē ("verbalized") hamaewi ki'woehi aehakī ai'woema: "Makeawiu i nakēwue mea pealea lalāwao tāpei nua'weu kiepo, pawī kuameu aepepo na'wēne hehelo".

Weawio, kuameu ai'woe mepakai penahea nākei pa'wiawao i lepamā mea pewualei lewawai mākeo wa'wā'wio napiawei wameiwoe ka pakēne penahea kiena wamēwu aenapie weneha aewuiwoi weiwoi na'wākē hamaewi hahai'woa piwoalei ka'weapei pewuakiu li'woakeo i aepawā lakāmea kiewu heleme āwākao toa'wiu kea'wio weneha kākē penahea Kayeli hakiu hakiemu weiwoi waweapea 800, kuameu wa'wā'wio aiwoawai hahāmā kea'wio laleapeo mākeo kuawei namāheo muaheu kea'wio pielu weneha wameiwoe:

Haheahī wa'wā'wio lapeo na'wēne, aiwoawai pekahau memamā kalaeku, nemakē pekahau laleakeu maweakī. Wamēwu Papāheu weiwoi meha'weu hamaewi hahai'woa liwoa'wao penahea lalāhia, i raja mea Kayeli (heleme wa'wā'wio lapeo aememi aewewa nawai'wou keaweu), āhai'wō ma'wā'wē, "Helenu i kiepo pa'wiawao aiwoiwoe kahea'weu, āwākao aiwoiwoe ai'woa'wio hapealā aepiwoi hahai'woa henapae pa'wiawao nuewū mapāmao ā'weahei la āwiewue penahea noaweu liamei ākaeho āwiewa penahea mākia liamei laleapeo na'wialau?" Aiwoawai aelapio neahie nua'weu toaweu i muela mepepe kiena, nemakē ai'woe mepepe ma'wā'wē wamēwu Papāheu kā'wā helenu kepewua lapeo i aewakeo pa'wiawao poawao kiena, aelamei moapio.

I hapieho kāhie i lakaenu lamāhā hiwoa'wae mea i Buru laleapeo namāheo wea'weo mea lalā'wea kāhie hamaewi Buru.

Mea i wahākea kakiene wahākē, Masarete, Rana, ka Wae Sama newuahie penahea welahā seawai wamēwu i noahē lekalē mea āhiapia mewuakao, li'woakeo sāheu lakāmea Fogi ka Lisela aepepo aewui'woa aepakeu i toapē penahea Lameamai. I toapē la Fogi aenahā welahā ki'woawae. I poawai sāheu mea Lisela ā'weahei i laleapeo tuahē la ā'wēni ka'wāwie hehemu (la taehu lahāwio kakei'woa, pepa'wā wamēwu hahai'woa nīwou lapiaheu laleapeo nemaheo saehi). Mawealā Fogi hewepi Lisela aepepo seawai mepepe aenewu kāhē na'wia'wae helenu i tāheu miwoaweo. Aemewi nua'weu loeli wahākē loeka welahā ākāpī mehehe (mi'woawā Himmelmann, āmea toawau, mepepe hahai'woa mewiwoe pahākiu mea i sueme).

Wakēlo 12500 Sula sāheu āhiawao i nekamē pi'woepi mea Buru namāheo aena'wā penahea kea'wio poamao koa'wei pemamae kawialea mawei'woi aemewi mepepe soepu penahea wemewue ki'woapao. Kuameu la'wā'wē kea'wio laleapeo ka la'wā'wē tealā helenu kea'wio waleakē aelalai hamaewi la'wieku penahea i nekamē. Hamaewi i hakēme ka aepele āhiele wawea'wae aepepo ai'woe 13000 kiewu heleme lema'wau penahea welahā nekawae Buton hahai'woa aeweho sueme mepepe hahai'woa aewuiwoi mea la'wieku mahā'wī mea paeko naweahai Sulawesi.

Kuameu lema'wau penahea kawialea lapeo wawea'wae mepepe wakēlo siahiu ki'woapao. Kuameu la'wā'wē kea'wio leawei āmēka ka aepepo la pewuewui hawāpao helenu kea'wio waleakē ha'wealā. Helenu aemewi lamai'woa na'wākā hamaewi i nekamē pi'woepi, sāheu mea i Lisela lamāhā lakāmea Buru aepepo hahai'woa nelakia hamaewi kea'wio poamao taehu aelalai.

Grimes, C.E. (2010). Digging for the Roots of Language Death in Eastern Indonesia: The Cases of Kayeli and Hukumina, in Endangered Languages of Austronesia. Margaret Florey ed., Oxford University Press.

Grimes, C.E. (2000). ‘Defining Speech Communities on Buru Island: A Look at Both Linguistic and Non-Linguistic Factors’, in C. E. Grimes (ed.), Spices from the East: Papers in Languages of Eastern Indonesia. Pacific Linguistics 503: 73–103.

Grimes, C.E. (1994). ms. A Comparative Dictionary of Kayeli with Buru: Kayeli–English, English–Kayeli finderlist, Kayeli–Indonesian, Indonesian–Kayeli finderlist. Ambon: SIL International.

Koa'wei miewe lakāmea Anuta

Moa'wae lekakae i la'waewuo nāhei Keapā aepepo hahai'woa aepawā mea mālā lakā'weo puawiu kiewu aepepo wiwoena ka haweapī Mea Felanesia.

Lakeamei mea kea'wio ā'wiapeu lawēho, nema'wā, ka lieko mea newahai nehepi toeni, nua'weu mualau Mea Felanesia mua'wao kawialea lapeo nakāpai nēhe penahea Nāhei pewueno wahēme lamai'woa mea kea'wio wewapeu penahea ki'woehi naweahai; ka hewua'wae mepepe āmea kawīwō, kuameu kawialea sākī moehi aewuapie aewui'woa la la'wā'wao mea kea'wio āpeawie pakeamae, hepamei, hawaeli, ka mua'wao soa'wā. Moa'wiu āpeawao kawiapē nehawae Anuta, hahai'woa kēho Mea Felanesia koamau la i pahaiwō Solomon La'wieku:

Nga kanopenua e rua. Nga ariki toko
rua poki. Te ariki, Tui Anuta, na ingoa te
Ariki Apao. Taie raea, Pakakana.

Wawea'wae neahie loeli naelu. Wawea'wae
ai'woe neahie loeli mepakea. I nakiakia, Tui Anuta,
pehaleo aehele weiwoi i Ariki Apao. Ki'woehi
aewuakē moa'wiu weiwoi Pakakana.

Aamea henapae nēpe Anuta pemamae wamēwu kiwoi'wou ka tēlo pekahau kiewu mea pa'wiawao waleahio. Haheahī maheakē mea walāwio wiakio ka Pa'waemi liapeu lahiawei lēno miena pa'wiawao aepepo aewawē penahea mea Anutamea i ka penahea neahia helenu aenapie aenakea la pemamae, koa'wei kuakī, ka i Keapā la'wieku. Aamea toawau wewuepe la i wiakio luahea, helenu aemalai suapia aenapie lapīwoe ka mapea'wā lameamae. I aememi āweamai nehawae penahea welahā pepahia pekahau hahai'woa aehakī la mākeo lemeli miena aepepo miahai kelapei namāheo kea'wio kueme sei'woe mehapie napiahā. Mea Anutamea i kawialea pa'wākē heleni ka wāpē la āmea siela lakeamei pemamae, mepepe kiena, nehawae palākea hewalē helenu kehemo wameiwoe:

Ko naatou noporaki. Pu Ariki ne au
mai Tikopia. Ne aru ki a Tui Anuta; ki a
te Ariki Apao. Kararanga atu ko naatou,
kairo naatou iroa te raa mo te matangi mo
te ngaru. E ngaaio pero. Ko naatou e kararanga,
"Kairo e ngaru; kairo e matangi;
kairo e raa."

Kuameu wewakeo. Pu Ariki lapeiwou nekawae Tikopia.
Aa'wieme naenu penahea Tui Anuta;

penahea ki'woehi Ariki Apao.

Kuameu puele penahea pekawao pa'wiawao

kuameu neahie peapiu helenu i peka'wē

ka i pa'wiewuo namāheo i leahē.

Wawea'wae aelapio weiwoi lapāwā ā'waeka.
Kuameu puele,

"Wawea'wae nehawae lapialea leahē;

lapialea pa'wiewuo; lapialea peka'wē".

Wamēwu mea Felanesiamea i la hahai'woa wamaewe pa'wiawao nehawae 90 nuemo mea Melanesia, kuameu aepepo wamao suawio mea kea'wio poahā wamēwu hahai'woa teahao, kehemo, ka mapea'wā nelakia ka mea kea'wio wa'wākai pamea'wei helenu luahā mea i Mea Felanesia liapā, lamai'woa mekakē mea kekaleu wekahao:

Ko Tui Anuta ne karanga, ko ia e piipia
ke mamata ki te raa mo te matangi
mo te ngaru. Ko Pu Ariki ne karanga atu,
"E rerei." Ko ia ka aru ki Tikopia; ka pai
i te penua nei te raa mo te ngaru mo te
matangi

Tui Anuta puele ā'wieme luakie

penahea mi'woawā ki'woehi
peka'wē ka i pa'wiewuo ka i leahē.

Pu Ariki puele penahea pekawao,

"Nawai'wou āweiwō". Aa'wieme sei'woi aenenu
mahā'wai penahea Tikopia;

i peka'wē ka i leahē namāheo
i pa'wiewuo sei'woi liakau

hamaewi āmea waleahio.

Kuameu lia'wau kea'wio aelakia mea heleme kuameu aepepo lekakae aenapie āwiaweu lakāmea āheahia napeamao penahea Felanesia, wi'woawī wamēwu kea'wio aewuawea mawiamea namāheo wamēwu hahai'woa wēmi mea wahālao na'wia'wae. Mea Anutamea i ākialae hamaewi kea'wio Mea Felanesia wameiwoe wamēwu hahai'woa ā'wēke mea koapei ka penahea makei'woi maleawiu penahea welakē pa'weapei:

Ku oko ki Tikopia; kae tapito te apaa
mo te ngaru mo te matangi. Te ngaru ne
au o keri te penua. Nga raakau ne patipatia
i te matangi.

Aa'wieme aiwoawē aewewa Tikopia;

pawī mepakai ki'woehi
luenu ka i leahē ka i pa'wiewuo.

I leahē lapeiwou

penahea lepalao i waleahio.

I peakē hiwoena
la i pa'wiewuo.

Aelaweo la i ā'wiapau 1990, kuameu kawialea keawai pawiewū penahea muaweu teahea penahea ki'woehi kiwoalea ka noakea leniwoe wa penahea pī'wō i halaelo lakāmea ā'wiakī nahiawau nawiamao penahea kea'wio poamao kawiapē ka wēka penahea kea'wio poamao mepakea:

Pakaoti te apaa, kae titingi te raa. Pakakana
mo na kanopenua, ko naatou vai
ku ma. Te vaatia ne ma naatou vai, te
Ariki Apao koi pito. Piipia ke vavae atu ki
a Te Ariki a Pakakana. Pakakana ne karanga
mai, kairo. Ona kanopenua ku mamate.
Ko ia poki ka mate. Kairo inu poki
te vai. Kairo sori atu te vai mora.

Nekeni i luenu, pawī poewui i peka'wē.
Wamēwu mepepe Pakakana ka pehaleo wawē,

kea'wio hapeakeu nāhea penapea pehewo.

Aapai'woe kea'wio
hapeakeu nāhea wa'waena āmā'wea,

i Ariki Apao weiwoi mekehu aepewu.

Aa'wieme luakie penahea nepalau
helenu i Ariki hahai'woa Pakakana.
Pakakana puele penahea pekawao, lapialea.

Pehaleo kiewu wa'wā'wio
hewui'wō. Aa'wieme sei'woi ai'woe mewuahī.

Mawealā sei'woi ā'wieme aewewui i hapeakeu.

Aiwoawai penahea nepeha
pekawao ā'wāwē hapeakeu.

Oral Traditions of Anuta, A Polynesian Outlier in the Solomon Islands
Richard Feinberg

New York - Oxford
Oxford University Press, 1995.

Studies in Tongan - Seaheo la mea Tonga

I nualai mea aamea wiapee nehawae i mea Tonga laleapeo. Mea Tonga nehawae hahai'woa Mea Felanesia laleapeo liele pekahau wakeelo 100.000 kiewu paheeme la ki'woehi mea Tonga ai'woawai la i Aepele Keapaa.

Moa'wiu mea i aaheakea pakieku la'waamaa mea i mea Tonga laleapeo nehawae hewualei ergative aahaawee waweawii: ki'woehi nualai mea aenapie lawaa'weu neahau aaweakea la i aawiapai aahaawee (papaaheu,
"absolutive") wameewu i moa'wiu aawiawio penahea i suakeo mea hahai'woa maahei neahau. Aamea suakiu mea "ergative" aahaawee waweawii nehawae kahia'wee lamaawao i mea Tongamea namaaheo me Samoamea - miapeo aameeka la i Mea Felanesia aewuiwoi.

I aalaepe mea i Mea Felanesia poena aenapie nameela aahaawee waweawii. Ki'woehi wamei mea i loeli loena mea aahaawee waweawii la i Mea Felanesia aameeka nehawae poewu hawea'wea penahea hahai'woa hiwoene nalaahae: koahau, lawiiwoa i lakaamea i Proto-Mea Felanesia maa'weu lahaakee wameewu ergative pa'wiawao taakeo aeleha aemapio pawiaweo kapiameu la i mea Tongamea ka mea Samoamea - miapeo teawaa (Hohepa 1969, Chung 1977, 1978 aemahea noakee).

"Ergative" aahaawee waweawii, lahau, nehawae aiwoawai hahai'woa kea'wea hekawae penahea nua'weu Mea Felanesia aameeka. Haheahii nehawae kahia'wee lamaawao hahai'woa pakeemu aaweahaa mea aameeka wahiehe i Aepeno, Wemamao, mea Maya, mea Indo-Aria ka mea Kaukasia. Lahaiwoe aaweameu, "ergative" aahaawee waweawii nehawae aiwoawai hahai'woa laleapeo - weepi kea'wea. Hamaewi i aawaelo, haheahii loeka welahaa aakaapii hahai'woa la'wia'wao mea Leapia Nawaalaa (LN). Hahai'woa aaheahia aehalao aapeawao wameewu i maa'weu-penahea-ergative lawiiwoa i lahaiwoe Mea Felanesia soalei penahea hawiahiu aawiewa hahai'woa liahau laleahiu mea "ergative" aahaawee waweawii aaweakee la hahai'woa weepi laleapeo.

Lahau, makeawiu nuewuu neahie penahea newuapee aamea lawiiwoa i, hahai'woa aelalao aaweakee wameewu penahea mewuewui aelapio hahai'woa ka'waawie aepawaa mea aameeka kawialea niahii aamea lawiiwoa i. Maene, aa'waawee laleapeo aawaakao aenenu lekakae tuamei lawiiwoa i. Lahau, aameeka helenu ergative aahaawee waweawii aepepo laewua pekahau teakae helenu nameela aahaawee waweawii aapeawao wameewu Pa'waemi.

Toahai haheahii nehawae aema'wea hahai'woa soeho malealao, moa'wiu hemamea penahea hawiahiu mewuewui aapeawao lawiiwoa i wa'waa'wio penahea aewahiu aeleha la hahai'woa aenapee laleapeo. Weapio mi'woi'woo aamea lawiiwoa i?

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Blake, B. J. (1977) Case Marking in Australian Languages, Canberra, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.

Chung, S. (1978) Case Marking and Grammatical Relations in Polynesian, Austin, University of Texas Press.

Chung, S. and Seiter, W. J. (1980) The history of raising and relativization in Polynesian, Language 56: 622-638.

Churchward, C. M. (1953) Tongan Grammar, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Churchward, C. M. (1959) Tongan Dictionary, Nuku'alofa, Tongan Government Printing Press.

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Georgopoulos, C. (1983) Trace and resumptive pronouns in Palaoan, Papers from the 19th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society: 134-145.

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Kayne, R. (1994) The Antisymmetry of Syntax, Cambridge, Mass., The MIT Press.

Keenan, E. L. (1976a) Remarkable subjects in Malagasy in Subject and Topic, C. Li, New York, Academic Press, 247-301.

Krupa, V. (1982) The Polynesian Languages, London/Boston, Routledge and Kegan Paul.

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Le wizizala fe Shidedasha dysashaka

Wysideri lakakela tishasami talakeme le dysashaka fe Gizalani tesheshale wishadele nasaleke ani shekelele ne zeshaleshi fe le tidasheshi lilideki tesheshale bysasheri ani mysasala baleleshi zashikemi le didekari:  multilingualism is a common pattern if not the norm in many parts of Africa... it is not unlikely that a typical citizen of Nigeria will speak at least three different languages in addition to Nigerian Pidgin English.

Dishalaka tedakaka ma zyrizaka dikizani la le sasileshi zysalale ani zyrasili ralilame selizami, de keshikene bidelami tidashaka raledeki dikizani la talakeme tileshale dysashaka ani zyrasili dikizani la talakeme tileshale falyraka shidedale fikikani gwyseshili.

Mizilami wilishele gwysilili la shizedala bysasala ledelami wasashela fikikani shikadasha tilelami, le gakizale fishekami wa shikakari shikyrasha tishileme ke tileshale fe le kalelela. Shakidesha tileshale weladale, le sidizeke bakelashi la lishishemi wizizala bidelami kasizela, gikilame nasashesha rilikani washekale la le lashekashi walakame dikizani “mass comparison” shedidela nasashesha Joseph Greenberg. Le shidishemi dadela gwelizele ke tileshale fe le gwalalasha lilideki tesheshale shakizale, beladele dyresheki ke bikysesha kalelela:

Ne zeshaleshi syreke kelyraka zizesheme shizedala gwalalasha tadizame, kyselashi wa le nasizame shelekala naseshame widadeke fe wizizala, lilideki fe dikesheke (“family” dashasili shekasaka medemi). Le shidishemi dakashame kelyraka lishadili wa nikikeshi widadeke wysedari la zekashari dalisheki talakeme wishysari zidaseke tesheshale gwizesheki zalyrale wizizala ani wekizasha talakeme ne bishalela sekysashi kekizale shekasaka tishishemi kaleshaka:

A final technique is one rarely used to determine genetic relationships but is useful at the lowest level of classification, i.e., determining whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or two separate languages. The test is one of mutual intelligibility, evaluating whether speakers of Language A can understand the speakers of Language B and vice versa. It is a more finely grained measure than the others and is used primarily to measure the closeness of two varieties already known to be close, closer than varieties evaluated by the comparative method.

Le nelederi fe washileki bidelami sedidala ani tizashaka (tizidili) wa shikakari lededeki wideshemi le dadela fe Europa, tedikeke tesheshale fala shakeshale "non-linguistic" tiledemi la rysilale wideshemi kidizili lyrishesha gishysene. Kadadani le ledasesha nyrileshi zasikeri, zekikele, kekizale wishadele le fadeshale fe sadizashi talalasha. Wa likishani le zeshaleshi nysekili zadashashi sysekaka si didekari sideshani walesheshi fekyseke gadishela ma le washilili fe tysyreri talalasha. Shashysili gwalalasha tesheshale shakizale wekekami sideshani tesheshale walesheshi wishadele kedyrari la rikakela; mysedemi raledeki zyralemi reshekeme ma bisasala Shidedasha dysashaka la zashasela zyradeki raledeki dikizani kedishili dikizani likesheke deshikari.

An Introduction to African Languages

G. Tucker Childs
Portland State University - 2003

John Benjamins Publishing Company
Amsterdam/Philadelphia

Polynesian Outliers Languages - Felanesia Mua'wao

1. Futuna-Aniwa:

I Felanesia mua'wao mea Vanuatu nepakai wealaa hamaeku aameeka, Emae, Mele-Fila ka Hakeeme Futuna-Aniwa. Nua'weu aepepo liele pekahau aa'wiapeu naelu nakaemu koakau maleapia hapiawee la'wieku. Aiwoawai aelapio mapaamao nua'weu aameeka luahea welahaa aapiewua nekawae teakae liele pekahau i pawielu mea i leapea mea Vanuatu, nemakee i miapeo lakaa'weo mapaamao welahaa na'weahae nekawae kea'wio palaeho i pekahau liapei liwoalae wameewu aewui'woa.

Taapao i Vanuatu ai'woawai nua'weu lakaa'weo kawaahaa "isolated". Haleawii penahea i mamaahiu kawaakeu mea Oseania, nua'weu wealaa lakaa'weo mapaamao welahaa loapai penahea luahei la'waamaa la papie helenu hakiahio wawea'wii hakeahiu. Peapii i pemamae la'wiiwoi aamea nalaahaa aewiwoe mea kiewu, aameeka, ka liapei miewe nehawae i naawii menalae mea i laleapeo wia'wao mawaeli aahealau.

2. Mavea, Tutuba, Aore, Araki ka Tangoa:

Mavea, hahai'woa laleapeo liele la Vanuatu, maakeo poena kamea'wao wewuapio mea wi'woawii noahei ka waleahee la hewualei lewapau nuapee.

Mavea nehawae hahai'woa mehehe laleapeo, liele pekahau waweapea nakeenu saaheu hamaewi i neiwou i kameepu Mavea, hahai'woa siepo mea Espiritu Santo Waleahio, Vanuatu. Aena'waa penahea Tryon (1976: 133) "lexicostatistical" lawiiwoa, i namaepi mapea'waa liawao mea Mavea nehawae Tutuba, helenu 73.3 nuemo mea suewo ma'wei'woa, haweewe hamaewi hahai'woa aewi'woa mea 221 makiapio lakaapeu. I hakiaheu laleapeo Aore weiwoi i kawaeku namaepi liawao penahea Mavea (72.6 nuemo), pepahia pekahau Aepele Malo, Araki ka Tangoa, la kawaa'wau weawai mea aawaakae.

3. Paamese, Lopevi ka Ambrym:

I loeli aameeka ka'waemo aahealau, Paamese ka Ambrym, papaa'wia hahai'woa makeehi lahaewua peemo mea Kiwoalea Vanuatu aameeka (Crowley 1991: 183). Paamese mapaamao welahaa laleewa kekamea wealaa wahaakee, Kahaapae (N), Kiwoalea (C) ka Tuawia (S) Paamese.

Nawai'wou mea nua'weu aepepo liele hamaewi i waleahio mea Paama. Lopevi, hahai'woa laehi mea Kiwoalea Paamese, weiwoi toakii liele hamaewi Lopevi Waleahio, nemakee nekeni i kakiapee kakiene miawea
palaeke, Lopevi saaheu ha'wei'woo penahea i naweahai pi'woepi mea Epi Waleahio, aepele mea Paama, aawiamai kuameu newuahie penahea maakia Paamese. Ambrym nehawae liele haleewa hamaewi i haheewue mea i waleahio mea Ambrym, nekamee mea Paama. Haheahii nehawae ai'woe liele la i teapiu mea Mele-Maat maweeka Peakaa Vila hamaewi Efate, wameewu hahai'woa koahee mea i kiahia mea aemapio teapiu naelu naheeki hahai'woa miawea palaeke la i 1950.

Mepepe hahai'woa moapiu mea leamai aaweamai hamaewi i aameeka mea Vanuatu, mi'woawaa Lela'wiu ka Crowley (2001).

4. Pileni ka Tikopian-Anutan:

Mea i lelakei aameeka mea i Santa Cruz ai'woawai, wealaa kawialea lapeo mahialea wameewu Papua ka hakaiwoo wameewu Astranesia, mea
maakeo loeli aepepo Felanesia Miapeo aameeka. I “Papua” aameeka aepepo Äiwoo (Muapia), Nendö (Santa Cruz), Nanggu. I Astranesia aameeka aepepo: Nembao, Asumboa, Tanimbili, Buma, Vano, Tanema, Pileni ka Tikopian-Anutan. I loeli kakiapee hameakai, Pileni ka Tikopian-Anutan, aepepo Felanesia Miapeo aameeka. La aamea makeehi mahiahau maleakai aa'wiameo, kakeakio mea i aameeka penapea kapeapaa wa taakeo hamaewi i pua'waa mea lialae aa'weena ha'waapeu.

Siewi, leweki aewuiwoi keakeo hewualei poamao laleapeo helenu hewualei toa'wei kuahiu wa taiwoa. Soaweo hawaapao poakae la aemapio sea'wii mapea'waa hapiakeo.

Neameu aameeka mea i Keapaa La'wieku

La aamea henapae nuewuu lekakio neameu (aiwoawai pewamai) aameeka nekawae i Keapaa La'wieku ka, hakiahio koahau, i Hawa laleapeo.

I nualai mea laleapeo endangerment, aameeka lapiela penahea welahaa liele, mameahai hakiaheu (helenu wa koemu aaleeku), nehawae kalaamao aiwoawai lakia'weu, nemakee la aa'wealea nehawae wameewu aehelo wameewu waleawia pemamae ka soeku. Nemakee wameewu hahai'woa nualai mepepe napaakao, lahau, nai'woi pamealao napaakao (siewi waheeme welakee napaakao mepepe wiehe wa nehewa makealei helenu i kua'wia mea liahau aameeka wa laleapeo hakiemu), napaakao makealei helenu i nualai mea kua'wia wa hamaalei mea aapaewo taa'wee
mea aameeka hamaewi hahai'woa nakieno ai'woapio wameewu hahai'woa lapeakea mea lemapeu ka/wa nahiapie, aamea nehawae hahai'woa weki noahei makiewa, aiwoawai hahiawii hakiahio waheeme soepu wiapea neawiu.

Taaheo ki'woahio mepakai hamaewi i la'wia'wao mea i Peamaa Pamealao Aakaa mea Meki, aeneni UNESCO, la i ai'woawao 1980. Pa'wiawao poakae la i aewahie henapae helenu i moa'weo Papeawau Aameeka (Miawii ka Uhele 2011). I aewahie teiwoa malaalae tuamae hamaewi i nualai wameewu aapeawao pa'wiawao nuewuu aapieni mea weiwoi aewewa i Mapea'waa Aaheakeo mea Aemeni, Ka'wealau 2011, pakeamau pekahau i ai'woawao Kapaa'wea Hale.

I aewahie luemu malaalae pa'wiawao nuewuu aa'wiewui hamaewi “Papeawau Aameeka” weiwoi aewewa Cornell University, Kawaawae 2010, ka i aehakii weiwoi pa'wiawao aawiapai aa'weahaa la Lapaawao, i “Pamealao koa'wau hamaewi papeawau aameeka”, Lea'wau, 18–21 Ku 2005 (mi'woawaa Matsumura 2010).

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