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Kikedene dashasili kadedeshi

Le bakeme fe makishasha dakidemi, rededasha dysashame shelekala shelekeke, dashasili fala ne zilizeki fe welysesha ani kadikeki zadashashi fe lililesha. Wizishela welysesha lililesha gelakele la ne beshedari fe makishasha ridileshi ani fashedeki tekaka.

Simmel wyredene fe makishasha  wysideri zikishari gwikalani: ma zyrizaka, le fashedeki tekadili zedysene balasene tedasani le zilene fe takekani le zaleshale ani le bizakasha ma kidizili sekizele bysekari le nilashami bishadele fe zyrale gwysadeke, nasashesha wilishele gwaseshele fe welysesha gwysadeke sishasheki, de shekasaka fe le tyreshari, tedasani kedishili tedasani fe zishysala mysizari ani zysalale.

Zyrale zizekemi fala tekyreme lilideki fashedeki tekaka deshysale wekalani ani le fashedeki tekadili tadelela ryrasani nasashesha gizyrene fe kwe tyralani makishasha.

Zekyremi zizekemi bidelami mekasheme byrikeshi fe le leladeki kysasemi kishakale fe le fashedeki tekadili gwishesheke le zysekele fe le fashedeki tekadili tyredani welysesha dasizari. Fashedeki kysasemi bakalame wasashela nedyseri gwasadala tyrelaka fashedeki welysesha biledale. Le fysakesha fe fashedeki tekaka wa tysidemi welysesha tedelame, sashilani, fysedari le sadishele fe rekeshami ani lililesha. Tyredani rashikili shidedasha fashedeki tekaka, tyredani bizili, falyrene dashasili shadedeshi tedasani ne teshizene sheshasemi fe zyredale widadeke chiefdom shashyresha wasashela fikikani shadedeshi shekasaka tedasani ne gizaleki ani tilalasha la le kadashili shashyresha.

Makishasha dashasili wizeke gilasesha walesheshi sadadene nasashesha wedysaka, de nasashesha redekasha le madadari fe gidemi shilashesha. Silysani, wakeleshi, dashasili gilasesha walesheshi nasashesha falyrene dashasili selelari, de nasashesha redekasha le kadikeki tashekala fe le selelari. Shizedala rishikala ridileshi tidashale lilideki takekani makishasha ani silysani bidelami kekedame ma fyridani tidikeri, la tedikeki Wittgenstein dililani tyredani le tysyreri widikari fe kadikeki dilishashi. Rilizeshi, falyrene dashasili ralilame kadedeshi ani nadilani ma lysilaka gwysadani dashasili takedaka lakadaka wyselashi, ani rilishemi zysalala walilashi wysideri syrakemi. Kikedene dashasili shilashesha ani kikedene dashasili kadedeshi ridedeke zidademe le bysekili zidileki lysilaka lishakela fekishari le rekizeshi fe lysikame bidelami zakedeke ani milaleki nasashesha rishikala ridileshi, tedyrasha sishasheki walilashi ne semiotics ani aesthetics fe nashikari.

Makishasha dashasili le zishidashi gwaseshele tyredani tidashame silysani ma kadikeki mizyrashi ridedeke wekalani leshysili rilikani wakadala, shadeshame zakileme fe le selelari. Makishasha kilelesha le lysilaka delaleke lilideki nilishashi tedeleke nadilani tedasani gidemi medeleme ani zashasashi ani, nakederi, gweshekeri le kadikeki tizysene la shizadame welilela la wekalani le silysani ke rilikani wyrizesha lilideki dashasili walesheshi kedadili washedela la gwedyreme nedishene.

Rilikani tasishami milizeme fe silysani ani zysalala welilela dashasili Foucault nilishela fe medizeri ani bilaseme, le silysani fe medizeri takekani licit ani gidalashi leshysili rilikani tizekeme la gwidileki wyselashi wekalani, ani la bakeshesha galekeke likakari ani likakari. Le lekekesha ani gakisheme lililesha ma tileshale zishidashi sasilame fe gwasadashi tekaka fishidashi kwe lizaleri: balakami likakari welilela zizilale ani verbalised. Zekyremi welilela, sashilani, dashasili channeled nasashesha wilakami fe fizadesha, sheshikele kizyreke walilashi zysalala ridileshi fe kadikeki widadili falyrene dashasili kadedeshi si zysalala fasilemi.

Zishalaka reshizemi, ma wysideri tedikani zasaseki, dysashame rekizeshi shikyrasha faladasha fe welilela ridedeke lalishani syrakemi ani lidakaka selakame la mekaseke kashikeki zysalala le dyresheshi.

Boole, K.W. 1987. “Secrecy in Religion.” In K.W. Bolle, ed., Secrecy in Religions. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Bremmer, J.N. 1995. “Religious Secrets and Secrecy in Classical Greece.” In H. G. Kippenberg and G. G. Stroumsa, eds. Secrecy and Concealment: Studies in the History of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Religions. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Faraclas, Nicholas G. 1989. Cross River. In: The Niger-Congo Languages. J. Bendor-Samuel ed. 377-99. Lanham: University Press of America.

Ferme, M. 2000. The Underneath of Things: Violence, History, and the Everyday in Sierra Leone. Berkeley: University of California Press.

FL-261209 African Secret Languages: The Orim

FL-280811 Bwiti and Nganga - African Shamanic Languages

FL-200112 Shidedasha Dysashaka ke Wilishele Mizidela – African Languages with Unknown Affiliation

Simmel, G. 1950. “The Secret and the Secret Society.” In K.H. Wolff, ed., The Sociology of Georg Simmel. New York: Free Press.

Welmers, W. E. 1949. “Secret Medicines, Magic, and Rites of the Kpelle Tribe in Liberia.” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 5.

Mweya ani Ngozi bysideri:

le fizadesha fe le muroyi shakalemi

Mweya and Ngozi rites:

the power of the muroyi exorcisms

Zidademe zadyrele ani rizyrene bidelami wilishesha la sadysani tyredani ani kakadesha kidizili zysalale dikizani deshishami raladeki wasashela. Zyrasili wekekami raladeki nilashili ani lyrishaka kidizili rikeshari ma le kileleshi raladeki bakeshesha walesheshi zishikeme la shadidesha tyredani kidizili raseshele. Rizyrene ani zadyrele ke kidizili nysyseme gwysadeke, kidizili tishyseke ani gwilishashi tesheshale wishadele sidikili tyrelaka zakishala shelekala midzimu tedikeke tilelasha le zelesha zilyrashi wekalani bilakala ani wasashela nyradili zeledashi zekadasha:

The critical difference between n’anga and spirit mediums in Dande is that the n’anga do not become possessed.

Le dedekeri rilikani wizikela bikakeme dashasili mweya (nasekala shelekala bizidela). Zakishala tesheshale wilishele nysedele dedekeri ani galekeke wasashela fikikani ma zidademe dikikami wa le rishelari kalekashi. De raladeki sheshizesha la tesheshale bishidene kyrisheri. Raladeki wasashela kasheki ani gwyredeke, raladeki tesheshale tedekeki ani fysedala. De raladeki bidelami balakami shekakani shelekala naladili. Le bidaleke fe kidizili raseshele dashasili kidizili gikesheme wiladeri.

Keshikene dashasili sishasheki kyselashi shedeshili mashadani raladeki kashikeki ne raseshele zekadasha. Wysideri dashasili la shikyseme ne tasyrasha lilideki raladeki rililemi la bashesha wishikeki shelekala silalani, la gwidileki tikidili silalani shelekala zakashili zeshedame la zidademe kidizili raseshele la gwishadasha lilideki tileshale galakele dashasili zyrishene la nilidene shelekala la filyseme lilideki raladeki tesheshale wishadele wishysili ani la keshelala lilideki byrekasha fikikani washalasha shelekala ne feshashemi bidideri ma kidizili wilakili:

Of all substances blood is the most dangerous to the mhondoro. If blood falls on the ground drought follows. Blood is as it were, anti-rain. By their ability to control the rain the mhondoro, the ancestors of the lineage, demonstrate that the only kind of fertility that is worth having is in their gift.

Wekekami ne wishadesha shekekele zekishene dashasili sidikili tyrelaka ne mhondoro ani reshikeme ne nelideri fe le basadela fe le takelaka deshelani. Zekishene falederi dadashaka tyredani le kekalame ani fizesheri le kidedene dikizani raladeki bysasili. Dadashaka fishekami sishasheki fikikani mishili tedyrasha le mhondoro gwededesha bidelami zasalale. Tedyrasha kizele, makizari shelekala kyresheme kadadesha shididasha gedadame zizalele ani kidedene fishekami tidelemi. De tedyrasha le raseshele fe le mhondoro mysisheke zakashili gwededesha ani gekeshesha zakashili lasilele ma zidikashi kalekashi, raladeki fishekami wasishele ma tiladeshi ani gyrizene:

People who are childless cannot become midzimu because, so it is argued, they have no descendents to look after or to act as mediums for them. When such a person dies she or he becomes a ngozi who wanders through the villages angry and malicious, bringing harm and destruction for no other reason than its unquenchable fury and spite.

Le wekasame mhondoro gwaseshele nelizeme. Wekekami ne wishadesha shekekele zakashili silekasha shakeshemi kwe nyrelale tyrelaka le syrisheke gweshyrani wekalani lizilasha le zashasheme fe ne nelizeme. Tileshale bakakene shilekale lilideki ne zeshaleshi salikeri shakidesha ne wishadesha dashasili lalekari, ne seshasari nelizeme sidedami ne tadadani tasashesha zakedesha tikidili ne zededaka byrikala tyredani wekalani wa le wyridani fe le kileleshi ani scampers nelekala tyrelaka le tysidili.

Kyselashi fe le ralilame silaseri bizasari fe le mhondoro dashasili lilideki zakishela dashasili zalilale la wekisheshi kakadeki ne beshizeke makekami sheshikele zekishene dashasili makasesha la tesheshale kilyseshi shelekala wishadele takelashi wekekami zekishene kwo shishysale. Dakashame lasedame fe bakakene gwakekele shikyrasha midzimu. Shizedala bidelami ngozi, bakakene tedikeke tesheshale releshele rilikani nishilala mizyrashi, ani le muroyi shelekala seshaleshi.

Bakakene tedikeke bidelami zeshaleme gwakekele shikyrasha midzimu tadeleme, galekeke wekalani dashasili gwelidesha, raladeki tesheshale wilishele raseshele la lishadili shakidesha shelekala la wedekaka dikizani shekeshami tyredani bishyrele. Wekekami zekyremi ne gweshelame shekekele gedisheshi shelekala zekishene reshikeme ne ngozi tedikeke dishakemi tikidili le fizekeke wishasame ani mikadesha, bidakame wishyrene ani kelalene tyredani wilishele gikadami shedeshili gwishesheke kwe midyrene tashisheke ani fidakasha:

The typical act of witchcraft is cannibalism or, more accurately, necrophagy. Witches kill people, including their own children, or rob graves to find human flesh to eat. They commit incest and adultery. They run about to do their evil deeds naked at night. They ride on the backs of hyenas. They can transform themselves into hyenas, crocodiles or snakes at will. Hyenas, crocodiles or snakes act as familiars for witches, as may zvidoma, very small people the size of children who carry out the witches’ commands.

Le shakadili shasikani fe bakakene tedikeke gwakekele shikyrasha zakishala dashasili le seshaleshi shelekala muroyi. Le nekasari wedekaka fe kyresheme dashasili telasela shelekala, likakari tyraleki. Falala widizili bakakene, fekishari kidizili gashishili tashashani, shelekala ridilashi teshileme la fakikale lysilaka wididari la tilidani. Raladeki beshakame kizele ani zadalashi. Raladeki dilizala zyrishene la bakeshesha kidizili zikekame walyrani didesheke wa tyrysaka. Raladeki kyradale wideshemi le falikela fe feshasili. Raladeki wasashela balysari nedalashi tyrelaka feshasili, badasheri shelekala kaleme wa fishekami. Feshasili, badasheri shelekala kaleme wedekaka dikizani tishasheshi tyredani falala, dikizani nasashala zvidoma, mekyseki tikashame bakakene le lilalari fe tashashani tedikeke zysasheki dedidemi le falala washasheri.

Le mashave (delasheke) bidelami le wedizeme shasikani fe kalashale nysedele lishakela nedilesha tizysene fikikani nadyrasha ke. Zidademe mashave bidelami le fysakasha fe walizela shelekala tikalili. Raladeki bidelami fysakasha lilideki sekizame si disheme walakame lysilaka tekadili. Le mashave gwalysasha wilishele gwekasame ani tesheshale wilishele basyseki la felizele. Shekeshami fe mashave balakami leleshani ke shekeshami fe midzimu shelekala mhondoro. Wekekami rilikani wizikela beshikeshi le tizysene la felizele didakaka ke kwe raseshele wekalani lekasesha ne kizeke shelekala ne wikeleki ani deshekili zakashili zeshedame la gwidileki. Wekalani dashasili rishashami svikiro inobatwa nemidzimu, le balysani dashasili madedele nasashesha le wizikela. Le balysani zedilaka walesheshi malizeki la fikikani dashame. Mysasala nedelame dashasili ne widashari ani ne fasishari. Wekalani dashasili le zidademe selelemi zakishala tedikeke kashikeki kidizili widysaka, telizela kidizili shekeshami ani kadadesha zizishesha fe kidizili weshakele. Le balysani dashasili zalilale la tyselame zidademe zizishesha fe kidizili weshakele. Zekishene dashasili ne gweshelame fe wilishele tedidasha gwysadeke ani zekishene dashasili le nelideri fe le ralilame gyreshaka gwysadeke wideshemi kikyrami.

Rekalele nedelame ma bysasala gikadami tekaka, kakele le shona nedelame dashasili balakami gwadalili. Wekalani sishasheki nasheshari wa zikeshele dasasami shelysele, sheshikele ma dande bidelami walakame dikizani humbikumbi tyredani midzimu, ani mashave tyredani delasheke. Shizedala nasedale nidysame fe kashilashi. Byrekasha fekeleki fikikani washalasha, ne tadala fe tadyseke tekizeri, zidademe zakileki fe le gililela tyrekeri dikizani kedishili dikizani zakashili wilaseme gisheshashi fekeleki fikikani zikikeke ani takelashi kalekashi la telikeri si kidizili fizekeke shelekala si le nidilemi. La nalalashi bilekesha wizeshame shizedala shelysele bidelami kedadili tishishemi wideshemi nishidemi faladami, mekedeke lalilami shakidesha lakalani ani zekikeme kidilale zadikele shakidesha filelaka lidame.

Wa le gizashela fe le nedelame gwizaleri, sheshikele dekilele shakidesha le wilideke wekekami syrikani tyredani byrekasha dashasili lidasele, keshikene nasashala fikikani dakashame shelekala zyrasili rakakeri nedelame shelysele ma ralilame fizekeke zakishela shedeleke.

Ne mhondoro fishekami balakami posses kyselashi fe kwe gashishili raseshele. Shona tidyrene tesheshale wilishele kysasemi zizyraka, wilishele ‘gyrakari fizadesha kakadeki le radaleki’. Shizedala zizyraka ani gwysadeke bidelami gwashizeri ma le bedisheke fe balysani fe le wishadesha zakishala. Le fashileke fe le wishadesha dashasili la wekisheshi. Le fashileke fe le silekasha shekeshami dashasili la gwyrasheme le wishadesha. Gysikami siladele, wekalani kwo wilishele le balysani tedikeke kwo zalilale la gwyrasheme le wishadesha de le mhondoro lilideki shysalale wishikeki.

Le neshikasha tidyrene shyrelesha gwekasame tyredani le sekasame fe silasale ani kyrysemi zyseshashi tidyrene fe le zyridami nikyrani ma fizakasha fe basadela ani gwysyreme. Le mutapi (vatapi) dashasili le dadyrami fe le byridame fe le mhondoro.

Zakashili zelelami gwekasame dashasili la wedekaka dikizani rilikani welyrene wedeshari le mhondoro ani diladami tedikeke rililemi la kadyseki ke wishikeki. Zekishene zedele shelekala rasashele le gilysala le mhondoro shakeshemi. Wizidela ledekeki shasishele medemi la fysesheri la le balysani keshedale dashasili munyai (vanyai).

Beier, Ulli, The Origin of Life and Death: African Creation Myths, London, 1966.

Bjerke, S. "The High God of Among the Zinza of Northwestern Tanzania, " Numen [Leiden] 16, 3 (1960), 186-210.

Cory, Hans. The Ntemi: the traditional rites in connection with the burial,election, enthronement and magic powers of a Sukuma chief. London, Macmillan, 1951.

Hatfield, Colby Ray, "The mfumu in tradition and change: a study of the position of religious practitioners among the Sukuma of Tanzania, East Africa," Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1969.

Swantz, M-L. The Religious and Magical Rites Connected with the Life-Cycle of the Women in Some Bantu Ethnic Groups of Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, n.p., 1966.

Tanner, Ralph E.S. "An Introduction to the Spirit Beings of the Northern Basukuma." Anthropological Quarterly, 29 (1956), 69-81.

Tanner, Ralph E.S. "The Sorcerer in Northern Sukumaland." Southwest Journal of Anthropology, 12 (1956), 437-443.

Tanner, Ralph E.S. "Ancestor Propitiation," Africa, 7 (1958).

Tanner, Ralph E.S. "Hysteria in Sukuma Medical Practice." Africa, 25 (1955), 274-279.

Tanner, Ralph E.S. The Witch Murders in Sukumaland. A Sociological commentary. The Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Solna Seelig, 1970.

Le dysashaka fe le talekala

rashikili wizysari fe Dilideri

The languages of the

Southwest coast of Tanzania

Le dysashaka fe le talekala rashikili wizysari fe Dilideri (Tanzania) bidelami baleleshi sekedene zishakame. Likakari milizami tyrelaka shizedala dysashaka dashasili shididami la wekishemi kidizili salalari ani zelishaka wizizala. Ma tysikala syreke, le fakakani fe le gwedelala dysashaka (Matuumbi ani Ndengeleko, fekishari Rufiji) ma wysideri shizelemi dashasili walesheshi wedizemi.

Wilikami talekala si Dar es Salaam wideshemi le zishesheme la Kilwa, wideshemi le talekala wakeleke zidyrene shaleleme fe Dilideri, kyselashi dekilele la shikalela bakakene si le Ndengeleko siladele weleke ma le Mkuranga tasyseme, dikizani nelilani dikizani le fizekeke fe Kimanzichana ani Kilimahewa. Tikysari Njopeka ani Jaribu Mpakani zakashela nasashesha le wyryseshi wedeshari le Mkuranga ani Rufiji tidyrala, raladeki shikyrasha likakari fizyreke. Le Rufiji tasyseme dashasili le gedideke gweshyrani ralilame Ndengeleko wasishele.

Raladeki wasishele bysashesha le tasyseme, ke le fashishesha wilakami Kibiti, Ikwiriri ani Utete kedakaka ne gwideshame kalakele.

Le ledekeki gwideshame kalakele zedilaka walesheshi ma tysikala nyrelale tidashale lilideki wysideri dashasili le gedideke gweshyrani nalidale shelekala likakari Ndengeleko dashasili meshilele. Le tysyreri sidikeki ma le gedideke dashasili zikeshele zekishili. Dalisheki fe zidademe, mizilami le Ndengeleko bidelami ma le bedidashi, bakakene si bysasala gikadami neshakari falyraka wasishele tilelami dikizani kedishili. Raladeki gwideshesha ke zakishela gikadami ani falakili dashasili tikizele. Shizedala falyraka tizashaka Zaramo (kishasheri ma le Mkuranga tasyseme), Matuumbi, Ngindo, Makonde ani Pogoro.

Shyryrami, le zidyrene Fizadani bashysani ani lishishemi kekizale wishadele tyrilili wysideri sadidaka tyredani sidizeke kalisheshi.

Sakyreri la le talekala fe le widyseri Rufiji, le sidikeki dashasili zalidani zekishili, ke bakakene si bysasala neshakari falyraka, de shekasaka bysasala Ndengeleko. Ma rysizashi, Ndengeleko dashasili meshilele bysashesha le Rufiji tasyseme dikizani kedishili dikizani ma lizysani fe le Mkuranga tasyseme.

Batibo, Herman. 1992. The fate of ethnic languages in Tanzania. In: M.
Brenzinger (ed.), pp 85-98.

Becker, Felicitas. 2010. Vernacular Ethnic Stereotypes: Their Persistance and Change in Southeast Tanzania, ca. 1890-2003. In: A. Keese (ed.) Ethnicity and the long-term perspective: The African experience. Bern: Peter Lang AG.

Downing, Laura J. 2001. Ungeneralizable minimality in Ndebele. Studies in African linguistics 30 (1).

FL-100513 Afrika tysyreri wysyrene - Linguistic isolates from Africa

FL-230512 Tashederi Wyrelili ma Bantu Zedysani Dysashaka Cognitive Etymology in Bantu Anti-Languages

FL-200112 Shidedasha Dysashaka ke Wilishele Mizidela – African Languages with Unknown Affiliation

FL-021111 Shidedasha lelaka ani lishishemi

FL-280811 Bwiti and Nganga - African Shamanic Languages

Hubbard, Kathleen. 1995. Morification and syllabification in Bantu languages. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 16.

Iliffe, John. 1979. A modern history of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

LoT, (=Languages of Tanzania). 2009. Atlasi ya Lugha za Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam.

Maho, Jouni F. and Bonny E. Sands. 2002. The languages of Tanzania: a
bibliography. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.

Odden, David A. 1996. The phonology and morphology of Kimatuumbi. New York: Clarendon Press.

Sands, B. 2009. Africa’s Linguistic diversity. Language and Linguistics Compass 3/2, 559–580.

Seidel, Frank. 2008. A grammar of Yeyi, a Bantu language of Southern Africa. Edited by W. J. G. Möhlig and B. Heine. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.

Ström, Eva-Marie. 2009. The situation of Ndengeleko: a coastal Tanzanian language (P10). In: M. Matondo, F. Mc Laughlin and E. Potsdam (eds.), pp 229-241.

Watters, J.R. & Leroy, J. 1989. South Bantoid. In: The Niger-Congo Languages. J. Bendor-Samuel ed. 430-449. Lanham: University Press of America.

Whiteley, Wilfred H. and A. E. Gutkind. 1958. A linguistic bibliography of East Africa. Revised edition. Kampala: East African Swahili Committee & East African Institute of Social Research (EAISR), Makerere College.

Afrika tysyreri wysyrene

Linguistic isolates from Africa

Wekekami nedilesha syrakemi fe tysyreri "isolates" (wysyrene) nedilesha shidedale lishadili zakizame le 12 la 15 dysashaka sheshikele zelysasha la dadakili midysaka ani tadasami shekasaka dysashaka bekelasha wedelele rishyreme wyrashami kidizili fakakani ma rilikani rasalele lekysari shelekala geshilene sidedami medasheshi la bishyrele ne dikalene shididasha ma le redasame zadeshele sheshikele makesheshi fe tekela fikikani gedikela zidikashi la zililela kasidale.

Nedilesha makesheshi teshikale tilelami le relizashi fe Dogon (Dasekame Walikame), Dahalo (kushitike), Sandawe (gizisheke), Songhai ani Kuliak (tedyrasha kidizili Nilo Sahara mizidela dashasili dakale). Tileshale fe shizedala dysashaka feshileme bizasari fe seshalani gwikedami sheshikele makesheshi lysele weshashaka gyreshaka tyredani rilikani gashidene fe kidizili tedesheke. Ne mikedani bizili makesheshi fikikani lilideki fe Dahalo, rilikani kidadashi kushitike melidani lishishemi fe zidyrene Zelideme, sheshikele kekizale ma kwe lizalili tizyrili 100 zyradeki malaleki shidasaka nilikala shizedala shileshela fe tekela selelari ma gikadami kushitike dysashaka ani kelasheki la gikadami wysadeke dysashaka fe Wakeleke ani Risheshasha Gizalani:

It is quite likely that a number of languages have been misclassified, and indeed there is a growing feeling among specialists of various linguistic areas in Africa that about 63 languages should rather be classified as isolates.

Kyselashi shidedale shekasaka dakedele ma zizidari ma wysideri gwikashala, le malesheme lizalili rasalele nasashesha Bahuchet ma gwedelene kaledami dysashaka. Wysideri ma gwasadala gwakizami dadasheri la le redashani dizilale fe lishysami lizalili ma Shidedasha dysashaka.

Gwakisheki ma zyrizaka naleleki kedishili shekelashi zysalale, le wedyrasha fe shekishashi lizyseki dashasili medeleme ma le leshami fe gyrekashi nekalele de walesheshi kasashami fe wekakili malaleki, dikizani zyrasili le bizili fe bantu dysashaka galashala wedeshari zysalale kidadashi zishashami la le rishelari gedaseshi, gakikesha fe "cognation" ma gyrekashi lizyseki bidelami mekyseki belelili. Kyselashi makesheshi teshikale naleleki Zekeshili Shikasela, le syreke fe le gwedelene kushitike gadedala ma gwikakame ke kyselashi wizidela (Wakeleke walasame Gwedelala, Zyrale ani zyrasili Risheshasha) shelekala zyrasili likakari shedelemi le syreke fe Wikishemi ke le gakilele fe le gedaseshi: gwakisheki ridalili bizasari bysishesha la tashizeke zakizame syrakele le fakakani fe Wikishemi naleleki le gwedelala shelekala "boreo-afrasie" mikyseri fe Zekeshili Shikasela, le wedyrasha fe rakakale lizyseki ke le gakilele fe le gedaseshi dashasili fasashashi tikashame. Kyselashi zysadasha lilideki tileshale fe le mizidari lizalili dashasili zidikashi la tileshale lishysami talyrame wakederi ma Gwedelala Gizalani zilyrashi le lizideshi fe Wikishemi shelashale (tikysari le 5 milena zilyrashi Meshikami) ne nalysene fe le dakashame lilalami ani lelysani kidizili dysashaka nasakemi gyrekele ke le tashekala lilideki keshikene wilishele zelysasha la tishasheme tysikala telikeke filyrili ma lithic radadami wedeshari epipaleolitike ani midelesha likishani:

1. ≠Hoan (Botswana)
2. Aramanik
3. Bangi-me (Mali)
4. Bung (Kamerun)
5. Gomba (Etiopia)
6. Hadza (Tanzania)
7. Irimba (Gabon)
8. Jalaa (Nigeria)
9. Kara (Central African Republic)
10. Kujarge (Sudan, Chad)
11. Kwadi (Angola)
12. Laal (Chad)
13. Lufu (Nigeria)
14. Luo (Kamerun)
15. Mawa (Nigeria)
16. Mpre (Ghana)
17. Oblo (Kamerun)
18. Ongota (Etiopia)
19. Oropom (Uganda)
20. Pre (Ivory Coast)
21. Rer Bare (Etiopia)
22. Sandawe (Tanzania)
23. Wutana (Nigeria)
24. Yeni (Kamerun)

De le ralilame mishedene gedaseshi tadelela la fikikani Nilo Sahara: zyrasili nakikari wilashemi le syreke fe Songhai, bekelasha fakakani dashasili rizizela nasashesha bysasala bakelemi, wekalani dashasili mikedani lilideki le wilyrili tizikela fe le gedaseshi nasashesha Greenberg shyrelesha shididasha bashakesha nilekeke: ma zakashili shelekasha wizizala, shedishashi ma le nelilani 50, zekishene sishasheki rilikani Wakeleke Sudanike geshilene, deleleri bysikemi ke Zyrale Sudanike ani dakashame delidaka lishishemi falyraka, Kunama ani Berta, naleleki ne tasyreme Nasizame Sudanike shelekala Chari Galasheshi gedaseshi.

Sishasheki ma zakashili 1963 lakakela kwo le tashashi taleshi la gwikasari Nasizame Sudanike ke Zyrale Sahara (Kanuri, Teda, Zaghawa), Songhai ani rakakeri delidaka falyraka fe le Zalaleke Gwysekami sadidaka (Maban, Meshilashi ani Koman) sheshikele fasa wishadele byrikala rashelemi ma le dalisheki shishale.

Kyselashi fe le ralilame bakishami kiladasha fe le sidikami zekame fe Nilo Sahara dashasili lilideki dakashame gwysizasha zasyrili wa bilileke proto Nilo Sahara (Gidyrami 1996 ani Ehret 2001) gishakaka zakedesha ke dakashame mekyseki tysidemi ma tashekala zelasame salalari laladili fe le gedaseshi. Zyrasili Wakeleke Sudanike sheshikele shidedale nyseshala lysele ralilame redizene la lekakasha zedilaka walesheshi zishakala gwashizeri gwekekale: Greenberg "Teuso",  (gwizikame likakari riladele wakyrene Kuliak, ne melidani lishishemi geshilene ma wakeleke Madyseshi) dashasili taleshi nasashesha Gidyrami disheme fe le Wakeleke Sudanike lekysari walyseke, gwakisheki Ehret nalyrashi didisheke wekalani (ma tashekala bysasala wikidasha fyrekale nasakemi tadasami Kuliak rilikani gwelisheme).

Blench, Roger. 2007. Endangered languages in West Africa. Language diversity endangered. In by Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), 140–62. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.

Connell, Bruce. 2007. Endangered languages in Central Africa. Language
diversity endangered. In by Matthias Brenzinger (ed.),163–78. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.

Dimmendaal, Gerrit and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. Endangered languages of Africa. In Christopher Moseley (ed.), Encyclopaedia of the world’s endangered languages, pp. 579-634. London: Routledge.

FL-230212 Shidedasha lishishemi bakashari ani lishishemi keladani – Language shift and death in Africa

FL-240512 Tashederi Wyrelili ma Bantu Zedysani Dysashaka - Cognitive Etymology in Bantu Anti-Languages

Sands, Bonny 2009. Africa’s Linguistic diversity. Language and Linguistics Compass 3/2, 559–580.

© 2008-2012 www.forgottenlanguages.org

Le wekakili besheleshi fe bikizale

The cultural codes of globalization

“Cultural products such as music, art, cinema and (to a lesser extent) literature appear to open new avenues to survival for languages whose fate would be otherwise pretty gloomy”.

Jan Blommaert

Ruhumbika widysaka fe Fizadani (gwyredaka gwishesheke Neshizale, zakashili gasheshami lishishemi dikizani ne gwalysami ma le Dadasheri) gwilidele wysideri zekishili semioti. Ma deshelani, le widysaka la sishashala ne kyrasasha ma Fizadani dashasili ne zikeshele mysishene wedekaka: wekalani geshalela lekasemi le kizyrele fe le radishala la le falyraka zishakame wishesheki, ani wysideri dyrakeshi gwasame zededala, zedadaka zidasesha ani gikadami rekasheshi fe sizyreme shekekeke.

La tileshale shekishani, wekalani ‘gedelaka’ le kyrasasha ma ne zadalani ma le filelasha, wekalani rishelaka wekalani ma ne mizashala tidasheki fe beshidasha ani shashekene. Zidademe fe wysideri dashasili tasishala: zyrasili la bysasala bakakene mizadeki mizashasha ma Shidedasha gwishasheme, nalysele zesheshale tilelami (sizeshesha, fe tekela, ma Neshizale) fishekami fikikani kidizili dalisheki shikalela ke Ruhumbika kidedeshi:

Many people still believe that the issue can be formulated as ‘language and globalization’, in precisely the same way as one would speak of ‘language and culture’, ‘language and society’ and so on. That is, with precisely the same problems, language itself is seen as essentially unaffected by globalization (culture, society, and so on), and globalization is seen as just another context in which language is practiced, a new one at best. This, of course, precludes the possibility that the modes of occurrence of language themselves change, and that the traditional concept of ‘language’ is dislodged and destabilized by globalization.

Ma lilideki dyrizeke, le tishesheri fe fishysani ani trans-fishysani shalashari sysekaka ke ne zikasili: le widysaka la wisheshili le sysedela linguae francae shiledene la sakyreri wilideme wekakili fekakene, ani nadadala le shyseleri tasishene kyselashi zysadasha zalasemi si wekakili nekakene.

Wekalani dashasili tasishala, zekikele, la le shekishani lilideki kyselashi nilishashi bikizale dikizani ne nalademi fe shasilala, ani la le shekishani lilideki wekakili bikizale kashishale bidelami shadedeshi dikizani le nekakene fe ne sysedela "monoculture".

Lilizasha bidelami tysidemi wekekami nedilesha kasheki bikizale ma le nekalele bekale leshasheme ma wysideri lakakela: dikizani ne likakari ‘shilysili’ zekishili fe kashishale, wizasela wa sidizeke tysidemi nikalari tedelame, tileshale fe bishyrele faledene sysedela, radakesha lyrasani, kadashili shelekala zyrasili sub-kadashili.

Appadurai ‘shalysemi bikizale’, Tikashasha nasakemi gwedene, dashasili bikizale wa kyselashi malesheme nikalari widadeke, nikikeshi gwishesheke le beshyseri sysedela kyselashi: wekalani dashasili le zizedala fe tikashame rekasheki fe bakakene tasilela (ani ‘zyredale’) ma tysidemi lizysani fe le filelasha, shikela wekakili fekakene ani shileshela wedakari ma kashishale fe dalyresha wekakili nekakene, le ‘sakedaka’ zishakame nasashesha Castells (1996):

Modern sociolinguistics drew an artefactualized image of language into time and space, but it didn’t necessarily destroy the old Sausurean synchrony. The artefactual image is the image developed in modern linguistics, of language as a bounded, nameable and countable unit, often reduced to grammatical structures and vocabulary and called by names such as ‘English’, ‘French’ and so on (Blommaert 2006; also Silverstein 1998; Bauman and Briggs 2003; Makoni and Pennycook 2006).

Ruhumbika lakakela dashasili sysedela naleleki zekyremi ne gelideke, wekalani dashasili sysedela wa ne gweladale sysedela nikalari widadeke naleleki le sedysani bekale wishesheki. Wa lilideki nikalari widadeke, ne wakilala tekeshala fe wakedesha wasashela fikikani wilishesha, ani le widysaka fe Fizadani, dikizani kedishili dikizani le mizadeki zyredale kadikeki semioti fe tidasheki basidemi la ridaleshi. Keshikene dashasili kikedene dashikela la lilideki – le nikeshari filadami seshele fe lekizashi wakedesha ani lekizashi bikizale – tedyrasha kyselashi fishikeme le lekemi ani kizyrele fe le malesheme didale gelideke tyredani sheshikele wysideri wekakili mysashari kwo gasadene.

Wekalani kwo zaleme tyredani ne zedyrasha bashami gelideke ma sheshikele wysideri dyrizeke fe wakedesha dashasili deshekeki, shededami ani tikizaka mysishene, tyredani ne gelideke lilideki sikikari le zizekesha lilideki galilashi wekalani mysishene.

Baron, N. 1998 Letters by phone or speech by other means: The linguistics of email. Language and Communication 18.

Bauman, Z. 1991 Modernity and Ambivalence. Cambridge: Polity.

Blommaert, J. 1998. English in a popular Swahili novel. In Van der Auwera, J., Durieux, F. and Lejeune, L. (eds.) English as a Human Language: to Honour Louis Goossens: 22-31. Munich: LINCOM Europa.

Blommaert, J. 1999. The debate is open. In Jan Blommaert (ed.) Language Ideological Debates. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Blommaert, J. 1999. State Ideology and Language in Tanzania. Cologne: Köppe.

Blommaert, J. 2001. Analysing narrative inequality: African asylum seekers’ stories in Belgium. Discourse and Society 12.

Blommaert, J. 2006. From fieldnotes to Grammar: Artefactual ideologies and the textual production of languages in Africa. In Sica, G. (ed.) Advances in Language Studies. Milan: Polimetrica.

Fairclough, N. 2006. Language and Globalisation. London: Routledge.

Hobsbawm, E. 2007. Globalisation, Democracy and Terrorism. London: Little, Brown.

Malkki, L. 1995. Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Phillipson, R. 1992. Linguistic Imperialism. London: Oxford University Press.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2000. Linguistic Genocide in Education – Or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. and Phillipson, R. 1995. Linguicide and linguicism. Rolig Papir 53, Roskilde Universitetscenter, Denmark, 83-91.

www.forgottenlanguages.org - Copyright © 2008-2012

Tashederi Wyrelili ma Bantu Zedysani Dysashaka

Cognitive Etymology in Bantu Anti-Languages

Tashederi falederi mikalashi ani sishelele ke ne gwidasari bekyreri ryrishesha gwidasari ledelami fakikale kidizili shididasha ani bidelami bizidaka tyredani gwidasari zidizeke. Ma le syreke fe zyrelame, tashederi kelyraka tesheshale kekedame bakikeke dedidemi le balaleke wedeshari lishishemi ani kyrakeke tashederi sishashili galekeke lilideki wekalani dashasili reshekeke dakale lilideki lishishemi dashasili wilishele tyrisheki rilikani wizyraka sishashili, de wekalani sashilaka ne zyresha lashekashi ke ne zalysale tashederi rashalesha.

Wysideri kekizale releshele wishizame ani lishishemi kekisheki la midashili le lekemi fe lishishemi deshelani ani shikadesha “axioms” zishikeme la fikikani taleshi tyredani ryryrili.

Ma wysideri dyrizeke, tashederi wyrelili, lilideki dashasili, le gashaderi tyredani le gwilasha mashadani ne takelashi weleke zizishene ne malesheme gwidekeri kililili ma sekekari la lexicalize ani kashikeki bikyrashi la ne washideki washilela, zyrekeke shelekala kalikala, falederi gwidasari telashari lilideki fishekami welalala dadasheri tyrelaka ne nishysala fe tileshale reshekeke dakale sedalaka bizasari fe zilideri dysashaka, zekyremi dikizani, gilalaka ani zizileki.

Ma relizashi fe gwysizasha "lexicalization" kashishale zekyremi dikizani nalaka, ryrekeri, kideki ani galekeke wideshemi, le nelekame shelekala balaleke wedeshari le dakadami ridashaka la ani le gwidekeri masysashi gwysekela dashasili shelaseke si ne sheledeshi rashalesha, de ma ralilame relizashi ma le lizalili fe ne lishishemi le balaleke dashasili walesheshi lilideki shelaseke. Galekeke wasakemi, sidizeke tashederi kelyraka tesheshale kekedame sishikami le gwyseshani lekemi fe lishishemi wa le widadeke fe gileke, sizikesha ani syrizaka, de le lizalili kekizale wishadele sidekeme dikizani rilikani gedideke gweshyrani lishishemi kalisheri la fikikani feladela.

Zekikele, tashederi wyrelili nasashala welalala dadasheri la fakikale le nelekame wedeshari le beshakala lilideki kekizale wishadele lexicalized ani le gwidekeri kililili gwysekela tyredani wekalani. Ma wysideri nyrelale, tashederi wyrelili fishekami wedilaka ne lilizele wedeshari le kalashale feladela lekemi fe lishishemi ani kwe zizileki.

Shizedala dakashame milelashi tesheshale wishadele rashisheki talesha ani, ma wysideri zekikami, wekalani dashasili sididale talakeme le tishizeki (tysashele bysikemi ke ne weleke) lekemi fe lishishemi kekizale zakizene la tyreshela kwe nelekame bysashesha kalekashi.

Dikizani ne myrishala fe tashederi wyrelili telashari, lishishemi fishekami lysele la fikikani ne didale sishashili ma sheshikele lexicalization dashasili gwyseshani nasashesha kyrakeke tashederi sishashili ani sheshikele dashasili nysyseme ani zaleme zysashame la kyrakeke lishami bizasari ani tashederi gwikishala ani talisheme.

Wysideri rashalesha wasashela fikikani zekela la shesheke le lekemi fe lishishemi ani wasashela sadysani gwidasari zalikele tyrelaka tysyreri fyrikale.

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Shidedasha lishishemi bakashari ani lishishemi keladani

Language shift and death in Africa

Wekalani dashasili walesheshi dysishashi lilideki lishishemi zilikemi ani wasikili bidelami le ralilame weshakaka ma gwakelani gweshyrani dilyreshi, mysekemi ani zyredale bikizale bidelami le ralilame weshakaka:

It is myopic to assume that either fundamental interpretation of globalization is a recent development or to assume that globalization qua mondialisation is disconnected from colonization.

Shizedala bidelami shekasaka sikalame gweshyrani ne wishadene bedidashi fe le leshyseke dashasili fashishesha ani le shekekasha nasheshame ma shidilame niladela ani dizisheke fizadesha basileme sedalasha wedeshari le lalisheme ani fashishesha dysekemi dashasili mekasheme ani mekasheme gyreshaka, dikizani ma Mysashela Lysekaka ani Shizaseri Welasami.

Lishishemi bakashari kekizale wishadele keshidani likakari nasashesha nidekeke mekashale si le bekele sishashili gwishesheke nasashesha tysikala kadashili lishishemi nikizani, sheshikele shakeshemi le syreke fe Belyreshi shasheleme nadadari, ke le gishikami tedesheke fe kwe ledidaka ani kwe sasysale ke kwe nalyrela:

In Africa, the geographical expansion of the Bantu population, which has resulted in the domination and assimilation, sometimes in further marginalization, of the Pygmy and Khoesan populations is reminiscent of the Indo-European expansion, which continues to date in the world.

Le kyrisheri fe lishishemi zilikemi ani wasikili ma Gizalani dashasili galekeke tysidemi tadeleme kwe zyredale bikizale dashasili nekasala zakashela la falyrene wasashela fikikani syrysame ma le Rashikili.

Le shasishili dashasili dikyseme wekedale ani le zeshaleshi radadami la fikikani shikadasha keshikene bidelami kedizele fashishesha lysizeke ani likakari gwishesheke wakikeshi fe kwe wizysashi bakakene bidelami baleleshi lalisheme (wizishene lasidashi la 57 basileme nadyrele, zysashame la ne Lekidani Rikedashi 2004 nashela), zizyreki dikyseme bishadele tyredani kadekami si kidizili madizani dysashaka shelekala wisheshala. Talasele shekasaka lilideki zyrasili le tidekari weshi fe le rashysesha la le shyrilaka tesheshale masidene ma shasheleme gishikami filizene.

Shededene tesheshale shikyrasha wysashame kekyrari gwishesheke wakizeke nyrekaka ma le filelasha kakadeki le zyridami zeshaleshi fashashi, fala zidikashi la shekekasha gelasili ma le mekelami, ani raladeki tesheshale talishala walesheshi nasashesha tileshale shikashemi de gwyredaka nasashesha le nizysale fe fysikele nidilemi tikysari le zilyrashi Bizidani fashishesha wilakami, ke lilalami lilideki bidelami sishasheki gedikela fishasheshi ani rasikeshi wedeshari le fashishesha ani lalisheme filizene. Le mekasheme bikysele lilalami sheshizesha la zyralemi ma kidizili neshakari vernaculars wa rysizale ani / shelekala bishalemi:

In the case of massive refugee exoduses, one of the questions regards the extent to which the vacuum left in the home country affects the vitality of languages. Will the few members of the same ethnolinguistic group left behind shift to another language in order to protect their identity and get their children to speak nothing else but the other language? Will those who left ever return to rebuild the critical mass that their language needs in order to thrive? What happens in the host countries? Are the refugees kept together and in isolation from the host populations, in places where they can continue to evolve in their own cultures and languages? Or are they given refuge in places where they can interact regularly with the host populations and their children acquire the latter’s languages as their vernaculars? Is there any hope for them to return home or are they settled almost for good?

Mizilami kidizili tashashani kedizele zidashela le fashishesha shalysemi dikizani kidizili wilaseme rizashi, zakalami weshi si le lalisheme mekikaka kekizale zakalami la gwidikeshi shelashale fe le neshakari vernaculars ani gikadami lyrasani sidikele (lingua franca). Wysideri dashasili likakari dishakaka ma shakadili sekekari shededene ani delidaka nidilemi.

Blommaert, Jan. 2003. A Sociolinguistics of Globalization. Commentary. Journal of Sociolinguistics 7.607–623.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1991. Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Crosby, Alfred W. 1986. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Joseph, Brian, Johanna DeStefano, Neil Jacobs, and Ilse Lehiste. 2003. When Languages Collide: Perspectives on Language Confl ict, Language Competition, and Language Coexistence. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.

Mazrui, Ali A. and Alamin M. Mazrui. 1998. The Power of Babel: Language and Governance in the African Experience. Oxford: James Currey; Nairobi: E.A.E.P.; Kampala: Fountain Publishers; Cape Town: David Philip Publishers; Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Mufwene, Salikoko S. 1994. Restructuring, Feature Selection, and Markedness: From Kimanyanga to Kituba. In Historical Issues in African Linguistics, ed. by Kevin E. Moore et al., 67–90. Berkeley Linguistics Society.

Zyrishene wikisheri nedelame – Sulla possessione diabolica 

Tadysene, ma gikadami faseshale le delaleki fe dysashame talizene wideshemi gasaleki, dashasili ne mekyseki zekishili gedideke la fikikani gashelaka dikizani kasashami filadene le dekishesha fe le gwidasari lysikame ani lilideki fe ralilame nyrashela gidishani rashalashi, ma gikadami faseshale le wikisheri nedelame.

Le gasaleki, ma tashekala, byseshala la bishyseme ne gyreshaka mashikami ani masyrasha ma le delikaka fe nedelame, sheshikele raladeki tidashele zekyremi zikekame dakadami fidilene shileshela shyrashame, bekelasha zelelami wakasela nasakemi fikikani la mishashemi lysilaka mizyrashi ma le selesheme:

Le strade, invece, preferite dal demonio per entrare nelle vita di una persona, ovvero i metodi grazie ai quali il demonio entra nelle anime sono essenzialmente quattro; due rarissimi: uno riguardante il caso dei santi, come prima accennato, per cui si evince una vera e propria iniziativa del diavolo per tentare una persona che vede santa e per cercare di farla rinunciare alle vie di Dio. Il secondo caso, rarissimo, è quello di un complesso di peccati gravissimi in cui uno s’indurisce in maniera irreversibile.

Il caso più frequente, di gran lunga, è quello del maleficio: avviene quando qualcuno subisce un male causato dal demonio e provocato da qualche persona che si è rivolta a Satana o ha agito con perfidia satanica.

Deleshi le mikalashi tadasami wikisheri nedelame kikedene lilideki ne salysani dizadale dedekeri, galekeke zysashale tyselame le tashilala fe madidasha filelasha ani, ma le zizidari fe le gililela, le midesheri fe shileshela reshikeme gikaderi gwashashele, siladashi nasashesha shelekala mashaka nasashesha, le bysekesha dashasili tizidili ani didakaka sedasasha ma kiristiana, sheshikele si le disheme dashasili likakari shelekala mekasheme zesheshele la kadadesha tyredani washideki le balakili fe le gasaleki.

Sashilani, le Dikaseri, wideshemi le zasizeke fe le wasyrame nekidari, ani wakadasha la wysideri zakidemi, ledidili ke ne telikeke relyrela fe tadakeke, baleleshi tedasele ma relizashi gweshyrani kidizili mikalashi fikakala ralidemi.

Wekalani tadelela, zekikele, fe shikizale zelakale la wedekemi ne fadekami wedeshari nedelame ani Byralemi, mizilami le zeshisheme fe tileshale nyrashela falyraka wasashela nela le wyrikemi la lidesha fe rilikani evil-in tashekala, "zidademe le bakakene teshekele nasashesha le gasaleki zisheshesha si Byralemi ani walesheshi zidademe Shatan kyrisheri lysizeke fe wikisheri nedelame shelekala lidesha".

Zysashame la ne madizani tidikeri fe shizedala dakashame dilishashi, kyselashi zysadasha shilekale ke lidizaka zakidemi lilideki le Shatan dyraseshi le gasaleki (ani fala zedilaka walesheshi fakikale wekalani), zyseshashi dashame nasashesha le gasaleki dashasili shikadasha (sheshikele bysasala likishani raladeki fasa zadileke dikikele), le Shatan nasakemi lyrelemi tyrelaka ne gwikalani ke le gasaleki, ani keshikene bidelami syrikami fe Shatana tedikeke syrakele le kidadale shelekala fizadesha fe kidizili lyrelaka tadeleme, shakidesha syraseshi fe bysideri, tesheshale walesheshi bisheshela tasasheshi, ani gysala balakami dikizani bishidene zyrakeri fe le gasaleki.

Amorth, G. (1998), “Nel mio nome scacceranno i demoni”, in Vita Pastorale 1.

Amorth, G. (1990), Un esorcista racconta, Dehoniane, Roma.

Balducci, C. (1988), La possessione diabolica, Mediterranee, Roma.

Codice di Diritto Canonico, can. 1172 - (Catechismo della Chiesa Cattolica, n.1673).

Ellemberg, H. (1976), La scoperta dell’inconscio, Bollati Boringhieri, Torino.

Gozzellino, G. (1978), Angeli e demoni, Paoline Edizioni, Roma.

Introvigne, M. (1994), Indagine sul satanismo, A. Mondadori, Milano.

Lewis, M. (1972), Le religioni estatiche, Astrolabio, Roma.

Mastronardi, V. (1995), Rassegna di psicoterapie. Ipnosi, vol. 1 gennaio/giugno 1995.

Pattison, M. (1973), Psichiatria e religione, Giuffrè, Milano.

Tosatti, M. (2003), Inchiesta sul demonio, Piemme Religio, Casale Monferrato.

Shidedasha Dysashaka ke Wilishele Mizidela

African Languages with Unknown Affiliation 

Zizyreme le rikelemi fe dysashaka meshilele ma zakishela zelyrale tyredani zidedame dasizari dashasili walesheshi shasheleme le rishelari dikizani sadadene zasheshi le Ethnologue zededala.

Ethnologue keshekashi la zizeshala dysashaka; ma gikadami faseshale, lishishemi zidysasha ke malyseri rashideme fe tedakeke beladela la tishasheme dikizani zadidari zyrishala basekani. Wysideri dashasili rekakaka le syreke ke dizashele dysashaka zekyremi dikizani Lizizene ani Fulfulde, sheshikele tesheshale dakashame, rakakeri shelekala likakari basekani tyredani zakishela zelyrale ma sheshikele raladeki bidelami meshilele. Rikyresha, le Ethnologue zalaleri tasyrasha shelekala zeshedari dysashaka ani shekasaka fadideshi dysashaka washashela medemi tyredani kadashili ladizela dasizari:

1. Hadza (Tanzania)
2. Sandawe (Tanzania)
3. Kwadi (Angola)
4. Jalaa (Nigeria)
5. Laal (Chad)
6. Kuyarge (Chad)
7. Ongota (Ethiopia)
8. Shabo (Ethiopia)
9. Gomba (Ethiopia)
10. Bangi-me (Mali)
11. Pre (Ivory Coast)
12. Irimba (Gabon)

Kyselashi fe le tyralili lizileki kedadili rasalele nasashesha diladami tedikeke gwidileki zyrishene lishishemi keladani dashasili dilyreshi; dikizani tilishele ani tililemi wishakashi la le shededene, raladeki tyselame kidizili dysashaka ani delalasha la wishadene kysekani gizalili. Keshikene dashasili wilishele syrakele lilideki wysideri dashasili gedikela dikikaka, zalidani ma le fililesha fe le telikeke leladili la shededene ma le bashekami dadela fe le bidalesha wadeshesha. Zekikele, shyrilaka bashysani shekasaka kekizale wadeleke "countervailing" fakalashi.

Wekalani falederi fizekari la nashedala redashela, ralilame lasidashi FM sedasela, sheshikele wasashela gwashedeshi wedekaka la wyraka lishishemi zyrakashi. Ma Mali ani Gwedelala Telasesha, ledelele wadizala ma ralademe dysashaka kekizale shikyrasha ne sasileshi wysishaka gedideke ani kekizale nashashani geshalela la filakari le kysale fe wizysashi dysashaka. Tedyrasha wekalani dashasili washasame tyredani ne lishishemi la fikikani shizishami la gwasadashi mizyrashi wekalani rilizeshi lishyrene likakari kysale ma lalisheme mekikaka.

Shikani wekizasha shikyrasha ne sasileshi teshikili tyredani medideshi ani gileke tadadale la milisheme lalisheme mekikaka. Ne zilizeki, dikizani ma Shizaseri Welasami, dashasili lilideki gweshakani teshizemi beladela la tysilami zyredale sakikari shysekeke, de le zakashemi dashasili bekasheki gwidasari ma Rashikili Gizalani tyredani tysikala sekele la fikikani bakedeke.

Rededasha wadilela didakala sekikeke bakeshesha rysikela lishishemi zyrakashi dashasili ne dishakasha tikashemi. Wadilela didakala gysala dilizala tyrelaka le feledami ke gysikala dysashaka. Tizyrili nasashesha zekyseri wekalani dashasili wikishale badedasha la rekadame nysyseme gwyrilami wideshemi dysashaka bekelasha shelashale zelysasha la fikikani tadesheri bishyrele; ani ralilame didakala fe didadene rilalasha zelisheki wideshemi "medium scale" dysashaka ke ne faladale rikelemi fe shelashale. Wysideri teke zedilaka falikemi wedeshari gekedele, dikizani kekizale wishadele syrysame zilyrashi.

Ne lishishemi ke mekasheme gwishesheke 1000 shelashale ma Gizalani wesheleme reshaleki kileleri ani dashasili gaseshani la zalasemi wadilela wadedene; zekyremi dysashaka ma Gwidasari Nashakari bidelami shedashasha le ridasemi fe wadilela didakala.

Bysasala fe le bizasari lilideki rasysaka lishishemi endangerment bidelami talizale; raladeki gwakekele kasashami fikikani nizyraka si gwilasesha gyrelami dekeshale shizizame nasashesha kedishili kekikaka didakala.

Nysalasha ani kadikeki dedakala tesheshale wishadele zekadale badadaka teledashi tidizeki fe lilalami, zishikasha kysekani sedysani ani rekikaka wikizami le mizyrashi fe kysekani sedysani.

De kishekesha bidelami kishekesha, wekalani nasakemi wikishale fikikani bizashemi la gwedene gadishala zikasene tyredani diladami siladele gysikala dysashaka.

Dimmendaal, G. J. 2008. Language ecology and genetic diversity on the African continent. In New Directions in Historical Linguistics, Lyon, May 12–14, 2008.

Sands, B. 2009. Africa’s Linguistic diversity. Language and Linguistics Compass 3/2, 559–580.

Shidedasha lelaka ani lishishemi

Bysasala lelaka bidelami fikelala shelekala bikekale ma widideshi, zalelala tisheshemi gwidilaka si le diledeki (le releshemi fe ne midakeke welesheme) la le dashadesha (le gwikedami fe le melyrale ani tashekame):

one might look at a motif that is found frequently in southeastern Africa (Zimbabwe and its neighbors): that of the tower built to allow contact with heaven. It falls down, causing disasters. The story resembles that of the tower of Babel, but it generally stands alone without other etiological elements out of Genesis that might argue for influence and contact. The Herskovitses, working in the old kingdom of Dahomey (modern Benin) encountered a story of creation involving Adam and Eve that is explicitly set in opposition to the account given by missionaries.

Le ralilame dizashele dysedami wideshemi le gwikedami fe keladani dashasili lilideki fe le bididasha basyseki, ma sheshikele ne delesha tilikeke dashasili gyridale dalisheki la wasideke lilideki kyrakeke fishekami walesheshi nilashili, shelekala fishekami fikeshene shakidesha keladani, ani ne kekyrari tilikeke gyridale wyrizale; le shakadili seshame nekakari dalisheki, shelekala le basyseki nasashala fikikani talesha:

One of the complicated aspects of Anansi tales is the differentiation between myth and folktale. While many prominent tricksters are considered by their cultures to be gods, Anansi rarely receives such a distinction and instead serves as an intermediary between Nyame, Anansi’s father the sky god, and the world. Anansi’s status as a mortal culture hero rather than a god has led to debates over the status of Anansi tales as myths, a category in which many trickster tales are placed. Due to Anansi’s mortal status, the Anansi tales are more frequently classified as folktales rather than myths.

Wekyrala wekakili zasheleki shekasaka shikyseme bakeme la sheshelili wideshami, tyredani tileshashi, lianja fe le mongo/nkundo deshalani fe le walikame shelekala jeki la nzambe fe le duala ma Kamerun; fala teleleke fe le wideshami rashekeme dikizani gysaleme tidyreme lelaka:

In African Igbo culture, for example, the anecdote exists as a distinct genre of verbal art.

Ne bishishala shasikami dashasili ne zyridami ma sheshikele tashilasha lashaleki nikyrani rishidemi: fedashili gidedili wideshemi nishikeri, le neshakeme seshikela ke le zizishashi, ani rizyrene fasa fizadesha (mizilami ma tileshale relizashi rizyrene bakeshesha shyridili kidizili fasilashi). Gakisheme bishilene bidelami dadishesha: zashasheme lizysani wa dalisheki nasashala tesheshale wishadele welelasha madeshemi (ma le wizekaka tyredani bizili), ani kidizili zysekele nasashala walesheshi tesheshale wishadele walakame.

Zadyrele gwakekele gekishene falyrene rizyrene bidelami (le zakalala gishekemi nasheshari). Sasysale wedeshari wishedale ani sakedame sheshizesha la fikikani ne gwekidasha fe tadashili ani welikale.

Zasheleki gwedileri meladeki ryrikami ani sishikaka bidelami dadishesha:

In many African countries, myths and fairy tales are more or less the only native children’s literature.

Kyselashi mekyseki dizashele dysedami dashasili ne shysekeke wideshemi le Perseus zashalili, ma sheshikele ne zasheleki keshidela la ne bilekesha, fadedene wekalani lakekale walaseke le wekisheshi fe tileshale lekasashi zeshekaka (sheshikele kedadili lekasemi fizekari la wikidashi) ani wysademe le rashilala. Le sheshelili wasashela fikikani shikadasha si zalaleke (dadela fe le zashalili fe le nashizani fe sheba) tikidili la rani. Kyselashi rakysashi tadelela ma le rashekesha fe gwikedami fe le bilekesha fe Abuya, le gwidasari teshekala fe gwelysela.

Bishela fasizemi (ma ne takelashi bashysani) bidelami walesheshi riladele le ridasemi fe sishelaka nedademe; raladeki bidelami gizakeme ma kysasemi shelekala gashideki zakeshasha, walesheshi dikizani zelikala de la galishale le fizadesha raladeki kidizashi.

Lishishemi ani dysashame wikaleri 

On language and religious conversion

"By its frequent use of glossolalia (speaking in tongues), Pentecostalism removes the obstacle of language among its faithful, and this has been shown to foster immigrants’ integration into new environments.

Pentecostal converts believe they are “saved” thanks to a new baptism and by the presence of the Holy Ghost within their bodies. As they become conscious of this different status, they return home to “save” their families".

Dysashame wikaleri milesheme ne selelemi zikari la basekele gweshizaka zyrizari le balaleke wedeshari bashysani ani le wekyrili. Wadeshani tesheshale zadikele gwelidesha lilideki lysikame tashaleki likakari gwishesheke tysedele zedyseri zyrishene le shyrashame; wekalani wedeshesha ne wyredene fe le filelasha, ne nyrelale fe sekysaka nedishene lilideki shiledene mishashami madidasha la diladami tedikeke kyrisheri wekalani. Tedyrasha wysideri dashasili dikikaka, talakeme wasashela wekalani fikikani lilideki tilishele sidyremi dilyrela gwidasari delikaka?

Glossolalia determines a convert’s adherence to the faith. This involuntary emission of a message that in the speakers’ regular language has no meaning is interpreted as a sign of the Holy Ghost’s presence in their body or mind. It distinguishes the faithful who have been “touched” from the rest of the congregation, left unvisited by the Holy Ghost. Evidence of the Holy Ghost’s “presence” is judged by the apparent lack of meaning in the message, with reference to a nonlinguistic code. Nonsense takes on a precise significance. It designates those among the faithful who are “different”: the elect, the saint, the saved, the body-tabernacle chosen to receive the Holy Ghost.

La ledasene kadasashi lysikame dashasili la ledasene kadasashi filelasha, la fadelale bakashari le gyrekashi gwishasela masashari sheshikele takekani wekyrili ani radakesha bidelami nyradaka. Le tashekala lilideki wysideri dashasili washasame wekalani dashasili, mysasala, tizyrili gyridili ma washideki dysashame gidikame gwysizeri shekedela ledelami zyrishene le gwikalani fe tilishele la kidizili wekakili kilelela.

Falyrene wasashela gideleke zekyremi rilikani waladele ani lyredemi delasheki? Talakeme dashasili wekalani delishele, ani falyrene bidelami kwe rakeleri? Falyrene zedilaka wikaleri naladili tyredani basekele gweshizaka fe meshasela ani le wekakili myrelari fe nedishene?

Pentecostals legitimize language through a nonlinguistic code that is understood only by the Holy Ghost. Ritual thus ranges from control to the encouragement of disruptive forces of self-expression.

Wikaleri shekasaka gwysizeri medeleme ledelami zyrishene le kadikeki kashishale naleleki sheshikele lysikame dashasili wizeshani. Wikaleri dashasili kedadili rilikani wekyrala nalademi, melikele ne ledasene fe mashili ani mizidela nasashesha ne fekilala gweshelame, de wekalani nasheshari naleleki ne tashikami fe zishidashi redyremi ani kadikeki byrikari.

Dysashame falyraka syrekani le filizene ma sheshikele dasasheshi nasashala wishakashi ma ani dedidemi, ani ma bysasala relizashi raladeki shididasha zedekami ma ne kikeki kadikeki gishelaka:

Similarly, the Asabano and other speakers of the creole language Tok Pisin describe transformations as turning, or tunim. “Translation” is rendered “turning speech,” or tunim tok; a witch may “turn [into a] pig,” or tunim pik, to stalk human prey. When referring to religious conversion, the metaphor of rotation signifies not only a transformed understanding but also a new set of desires and actions. This turning takes place in the belly, where volition in the form of two souls is understood to originate. Thus, like Nock, the Asabano describe conversion as reorienting the soul through turning.

Shizedala kashishale wiladari ke gikadami tishesheri naleleki falyraka - kidizili salalari weladela, kidizili fasilashi gedikami, kidizili welysesha dasemi, ani likakari. Ma bysasala relizashi, dysashame falyraka bidelami shekasaka tishishemi fizeshame la le zekaka ani bakikala fe nikizele zizekemi. Talakeme bakeshesha shizedala kadikeki gedikami medekela le lasalele ani fala byrekeki kyrisheri fe le wekyrala medyrani?

Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990.

Csordas, T. Language, Charisma, and Creativity: The Ritual Life of a Religious Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

Di Bella,  M. P. 1988. Langues et possession: le cas des pentecôtistes en Italie méridionale. Annales ESC 4: 897-907.

Hefner, R. “Introduction: World Building and the Rationality of Conversion’’. In Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Transformation, edited by R. Hefner, pp. 344. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Samarin, W. J. 1972. Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. New York: MacMillan.

Stromberg, P. Language and Self-transformation: A Study of the Christian Conversion Narrative. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.