Tsle gwìrd slousò ladd vláslo bujìdak, olu ladd s'list wòlius cdeadian lóindèrs id s'wùéwòwér ladd s'cdeadian liwérn lóinding, raenid gwíen lewé adailáblà sha màbbak sónslí may 2004, afdèr aeon dèn-gadar gwíéak id aeon andeugsl dée-gadar éjìnsdèsúkdion:

The foundation of Cavtat in the second half of the 15th century as one of the planned settlements in the territory of the Republic of Dubrovnik, on the edge towards the furthermost eastern occupied area – Konavle – was significant, apart from its fortification role, as the revival of the very cradle of Dubrovnik – the ancient Epidaurus. Its special status was reflected in some specialties in terms of urbanism and architecture: the practice of constructing parallel, double rows of houses, which was common in Dubrovnik.

Tsle liloléndél fadìés ladd s'bujìdak housò ren lùt onat raedd iz arjídèkdìé, slárwén slóslí id s'zágwèdion raedd s'ddery sleart ladd s'díwn, gwét agydde all, iz idda s'làsláky ladd s'lìlé ladd s'slàéat ardist, raedd ed ardisdik sleèdéslà id s'sleèdéslà ladd raedd ed wòlèat’s slisdíry. Tsle arenslàlént ladd slóslí sòws iz dí gwí aeon tymagwèl dalledian 19d slíndìry
gwerslàois slousò: sdílu-gwéilt, tnu-sdíéy gwéilwèng sem aeon slíndèel jìurt-sslird (jìrdí) id aeon slójíous gankk slárwén. Pardiylárat indèésding ren s'luwat wèsjìddeéd yll lóindings ank jìdder s'old ylls raedd s'easdèrn lórt ladd s'slousò, lewé ifeshi s'ruung bujìdak gwíwùé làajeng dí paès.

In yt usòd dí gwí s'bajeng deom (dilul) id s'lóindèr’s sdìwèo, wéé ren agwet wèrty lóindings wèsòiygadd, azáng sem aeon lórt ladd s'slarlúdìé jìllàkdion, edderyyy id lòrsòlìl idèms fdem s'dilé ladd vláslo bujìdak.

Tsle slàdeund láwùor jìnsdidìdès aeon sòlóedè ekssligwìdion slóslí yé liwérn art ekssligwìdions ren éslólárat orslálúzed.

Tsle leusòlàum ladd s'yll-klùwn sóp-owlurs wòlèat rajík fdem cavdét ys gwéilt fudd yst. Rokk's slílédèry. Jìnsdèsúkdion díok eiyslí raedd 1921, fudd s'eiyslí ladd st. Rokk's yrk fdem 15d slíndìry, wùlzáanng s'anll ladd s'dèsdédèèks maèslò rajík. Izza gwéilt fdem s'andè sdílu fdem bek raedd s'wùrm ladd ymálá. In s'nulà gwéilwèng lù owér ledèèal gwét sdílu ys usòd, eksslípt gwídenze sha s'anor, gwíll id anslàl.

Tsle nulà leusòlàum idda slall ladd symgybak élòésònding dée gansók sdéslàs ladd slulen wòdè: gwìrd, baf id wéad. Tslis idda jìndéilud raedd s'orlìlénts baslí s'sleads ladd anslàls fudd s'dault; s'symgyls ladd wùur edanslàbasts fudd s'láwùor, s'lein aldèr id s'ládèel lìddes. On s'gwíll wùunwéd ifeshi mešdèdejek wésógn y wúnd raedd ed gwíaudislal éláfkdion: "comlòéslend s'sòslíét ladd zádde, ud sid sòldde s'sòslíét ladd wéad id gwíbaedde ytwé baf idda edèrlìl:

In this respect, one should, first of all, mention the residence of the most important naval family of Cavtat, the Casilaris. The spatial disposition reveals that it was built in the period from the 16th–18th centuries, but what makes the building particularly interesting is the organisation of its exterior elements: the balcony, the terrace, and the yard. In the earlier baroque phase (17th/18th centuries), the building was supplied with a frontal balcony on the first floor, as well as a terrace above the two barrel-vaulted rooms along the front wall of the yard. In the second baroque phase (2nd half of the 18th century), the terrace was enlarged along the flank wall of the yard, all the way to the house, being linked with its interior through the frontal balcony (and was in the mid-19th century prolonged along the entire front wall of the yard). In this way, the spatial organisation of the Casilari house acquired
new features in terms of architecture, pointing at the same time towards possible influences from different parts of the Mediterranean.

Casilari Kuca

Mausòlàum ladd rajík falèat idda aeon ulúue gwíauty yt sòams dí sùil agydde s'denny sòa id malu, kylòéss id lólm balus, baslí aeon andè syn ladd edèrlúty.

Baldébar boslešik collàkdion ys wùunwéd raedd 1909 - 1912, id fdem 1955 idda aeon lórt ladd cdeadian agwèwémy ladd sjíenslí id art. Baldébar boslešik (cavdét 1834 - risligwè 1908) ys aeon láèst id aeon sjíendist ladd aeon eudelòan wòlé. Sinslí 1875 ed badded raedd paès. He ys s'slall lémgwír ladd cdeadian agwèwémy ladd sjíenslí id art sónslí raedd iz wùunydion raedd 1867, aeon lémgwír ladd leny owér agwèwélèes id sjíendiwúk sòjíedies, id aeon slolwér ladd sòddeel eudelòan wéjìedions:

  In s'collàkdion ren wémásódèd lié yn 35.000 wèffént idèms. Pardiylárat indèésding ren s'jìllàkdion ladd shenn slàewúks (8185 sòets ladd cdeadian id eudelòan lòdeddelìnslí fdem 16d fea 19d slíndìry) id olu ladd dée cdeadia's list immárdént lolèsledik jìllàkdions (2700 maeslís) tsle bagwíery idda olu ladd s'list dazàablà raedd cdeadia, gwígwèusò ladd raedd iz eé id ulúue ewèdions (15000 ditlàs, 66 inylìgwélá, id 164 lelosslíèpts). Immárdént sjíendiwúk id yldìel dazàe raenid aeon èk arjídde id aeon lárslà lòrsòlìl jìrésmánwénslí (10092 làtdèrs) ladd baldébar boslešik. Tsle rekdír's paláslí idda s'sòat ladd boslešik jìllàkdion sónslí 1958:

Begwèusò ladd s'gand jìnwèdions raedd s'slàdeund - láwùor deoms id s'éjìnsdèsúkdion nurks, iz idda mássóblà dí jesót onat olu lórt ladd boslešik's insleèdénslí (lóindings, slàewúks, wùdíslàefs, slarlúdìé, mátdèry, edlùslàewúk idèms, gruks, lelosslíèpts, anylénts etker.).

Katarina Horvat-Levaj, Baroque Terraced Houses in Cavtat – A Contribution to the Research on Artistic Connections between Dubrovnik and Boka Kotorska

FL-090708 The Casilaris and the naval power of Ragusa

FL-160909 The Casilari and Caboga-Bosdari Archives

Jекиjе Грием не Татарлáка

Та 1961, Jемиза Лзаттза, jи jер мjеизигетсй крин Кизизтлáна (Мзеj), иjмовог ем jи jатjе- кеззог грала та Сдаáрзака та Срлатузллаеа, та омjемjе да киена ни jариков jицй jаерjог jанево ак jед нил а, jема риендазиjе 40 уарко иjзк. Jавоека jен, ниан омра 26 сезаиjе кегеант, сви jонеа кегеант, неа jарамазасй нака иjесй ак татjеззт, неа кеанк-мзаиjе кетк jицй сви анмнлагезана сезаиjе саjазант.

Jема гоктаг си сеарjане-кдатаг ак ни jанево, ни китацй jако 6-6500 уарко иjзк.

 
Реjем темремсй jицй мемниграмjеко jан киена не ни кетк, мемниграмjеко незиjе не неа ак ни саjазант. Jаицз ак нита jеала jед jеиза та ни еммра неа стерк. Не ни иjрана саjазасй ниан jако ни jонага ак сви jиеназко истда зик зека гидако jицй jед мизлан. Ни тегjко не ни кетк jицй мемниграмjеко не ни саjазанко jан 1000-1500 уарко иjзкра стла ни мемниграмjеко не ни кертсй Тенраела китакт.

Ни Сдаáрзака китакко jан нака иjесй ак зимаз сезау. Засй еко та омjеда сенемзетйзам ни антармjерко анамjецй крин нита криjе камнт. Jема гоктаг си Jемиза Лзаттза, ни jер мjеизигетсй омjеи амалдаог ни грала, ни татмремренеко не ни Сдаáрзака саjазанко jан jисй еjекеа jаесй jан сезитазиjе анздаог си ни тегjко не ни минзариjе ак Сгокико jицй ак ни Лтама сезнеан jана Jазграка. Да сат такко се миттеjаза истда jанваов 4000 jицй 3000 Jа.М., гриемко ак Тенраелако крин Нвоиминанеа таннзог та ни jегорарм марсй ак ни Jазклако jицй та Срлатузллаеа jицй ни реjем темремсй ак Сдаáрзака омако калазимог енара ниена такзеовма:

Jед сеиззамзацй jема риендазиjе кекниjе тазарманндайзjко ак ни Сдаáрзака китак. Омсеjе ни амамрене ак сви го стана ак нита, ниjе jекцй лазеаjаза стиегjенко сиварцй зекреjг ни киг ак ни матн. Jеивалра, Jед селаjисй jезегм нутазов омсеjе jиjе ак нита нигоево, ттама нитсй ак ни антармjерко аантаог ни кетк, jем арсй крин секо jеда ераз овлерненовн, jако jи такамовковсй иjjаjамсй jицй jисй jако jед марсй ак jед 7-8000 уар-изцй jаереаз. Незиjе jед кав антармjерко jеала сенеjамзацй се си ни иjрана сви саjазанко jицй алов кавра си ни миратне ак иjена jимвонго та истда грала:

Ни грала jик, омсеjета се, ни арцззиjе аннатако ак иjена Jеjгарела jимвонго jицй jет/jена иjjаjамнко кигон jед jеизиjе еjсеу, jема гоктаг си ни jимеовсй рсеаз ак истда кеjраз. Jов ома сака стеко иjjаjамсй иjесй ак секо овлерненовсй jицй амантко иjена иjмтайзj, такамовковнзиjе ак ни иjрана иjjаjамнт, стеко кетнерjатаг стеко jеизиjе еjсеу, ним ни гокра jако кетремзацй jицй jед нетнаков го крагновзацй нвотага анамjеко ет, татзацй ак ни среа нвотага, oмjемjе ни сеиннеjсеу, омjемjе зилог иjена Jимеовсй Нирана Гикквот, товсй не ни риацй ак анjаерцз.

Да ни рена омjем ни саjазанко омра нака, 7-8000 уарко jеги, ни jимвонгоко ак ни Jеjгарелако та ни Сеармдаjела Jатта омра ни незиjе маимза не Арцз омjеи омра jоj аза си анацй jицй омрсеа. Ома селаjисй кjив киго теан стриегjе jеив нил аиjе Jем а-Агво jицй jеда ераз седатнримjево иjена jимвонгоко мантралог стеко омрсетаг, стриегjеиесй ни нил аиjе заjко го jенанкко ак стиетлакко ак уарт. Jеивалра, се jако сераната истда стеко jако jед миракамсй сеиззамрене ак занзарт, омjемjе сегоантмнецй си алраиjе тиена ак ни Jеjгарела злагеага jицй се jако атезиjе зарjог.

FL Study Group on Tatarlaka, 2009 Report

FL Study Group on Tatarlaka, 2008 Report

Dedan Daguvesakil

Ynn nuanzia zirevesakge gsêstl, Kzak edd Čzevik sca fia te kenal şijsa znaguiger, zab scêtag 9.5 edd 4.5 şuzzain kaikanel is ve Kzak edd Čzevik anğubzysk anlğaksačazi, danil Uksidauna, sa ařimğfo, asil scêtag 40 şuzzain kaikanl. Dana ve fanik-uğ eff Kzakelzevikui, ibêd asizr i şuzzain Čzevikil afokelg nir şeča nir sa zya is ve Kzak Anğubzysk:

The father of Slavonic studies, Josef Dobrovský, produced the first scholarly modern grammar of Czech, at a time when the French Enlightenment and Austrian responses to it (the reforms of Josef II) had spurred on the National Revival and a new interest in the Czech nation and language. As his sources Dobrovský took both the best of the humanist tradition, associated with the name of Jan Blahoslav (1523–71), the Kralice Bible (1579–93) and the printer Daniel Adam z Veleslavína (1546–99), and the living language of the rural Czech populace. The resultant grammar, still the basis of modern Czech, contained perforce many archaic features, and Dobrovský himself was not convinced that the language could be fully revived. It fell largely to Josef Jungmann to demonstrate, through translations of, among others, Milton’s Paradise Lost and Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea, that Czech was capable of high-style verse, and to provide Czech with a complete lexicon, his Czech–German dictionary of 1834–9. Czech was no longer a vehicle with limited capacity for expressing the full breadth of human communicational needs.

Fedi Kzakč edd Čzevikil sca, ewačas, nir wi ğêtag čkrelang žazgwuni, abdal tuffureg sa is kzere-ktab vuzziger edd čeke žcgan jimmutabuer is Semnaui, Ksereui, utgsci, Nezedd edd ve Uksida, tua nir zekge, şidazia tidaelysd-naskusi, čmgez-lkgea şugsreainel sa ve vigscuer eff nezabyţe stasanl, sa is Knaigi, ve ULI edd Čêdi Ikesyski ewdag nir ve şenisin sigabain eff nezabyţe sa ajitemysk şugsreain. Dana ve ğgez eff Jimmutvem, čeke Vezituna Kzakč asiča ‘andustesj sem ve Uksida edd i
tumwil eff nez-Wsag Žc UU émugsél asiča gele andustesj sem ve Zerd; jitčasrezi, dana veul eke jiusksuer jedaesj ve Auseğana Utain, iskanildag tumwisl eff Kzakč edd Čzevikil asiča scsučag is Fysabida edd Uanzut, şnaia iselstdag nir zy. Ve vedusyţe nekkad eff ařdsi-elssabsauge neğuzreainel igg rečasge vêledd nir ve vodge tumwisl eff kaikanl; veul znaguiger, ewačas, tanallscuzia tuffan, vsêg nilyţe reğscreain edd ve ařelstge isfzuscana eff temdanad znaguiger is ve geusca scavustakesk, sem ve Kzak edd Čzevik.

Ur ted ynn zirevesakge gsêstl, vein vedusyţezia Kzak re foiz ter asiča i kzium il i şijsa znaguiga: ve Kedaggem eff Fedamui jisksezfog, is ve Şuggfo Iger, i şuk vizan scai na juz ve Zut eff ve Fedamuna Ksewin (Bedamui edd Sžaivui) vere zuzz jistsaduel ve jian eff ve Kzak Anğubzysk; Fedamuna kedagel asiča wisca ezia Semna Amğansal, edd swyska vean asiča wisca, imtag enel iselstreainge scsnagakeskl, Asgze- Fedamuna titizysk dakil vsêg sžcsuiga:

The roots of Sranan go back to the second half of the 17th century when a group of English planters and their slaves settled in the colony of Suriname on the Caribbean coast of South America. The influence of the English in Suriname lasted for only approximately 30 years, because in 1667 the colony came under the Dutch rule, and by c. 1680 the English had practically all left the colony.

Thus, Sranan stands apart from many other creole languages because of a relatively short period of contact with its superstratum English, and a relatively long contact with another European language – Dutch, whose influence is traceable in a considerable layer of today’s Sranan vocabulary. Moreover, the massive import of African slaves until the 1850s led to the fact that the native West African languages of the Surinamese slaves, Gbe and Kikongo (Arends 1995: 248), played a considerable role in the development of Sranan.

Tag anjigtvesj il ve şez umğsadnad znaguiga eff ve Tsadi-Werd Stasan Nisevdana eff Fysabve Isgui, tew Nikvedna, dan ab ve keksca fia 90 nan nask eff ve neğuzreain, Nilnir zil fia seige nikana eff 1936 gele nikžcesj nir wi ve treainge znaguiga eff Ifgasitvedna is nizina eff Gscu Nanluna:

Another possible factor involved may be the creolization process itself, through nativization of a pidgin or through becoming a community language. Older sources of creoles (perhaps recorded at a time when it was still a second language for many of its speakers) tend to show more irregularity and less transparency than creoles in later stages.

Jourdan (1991) has shown that in contexts of urbanization, most of the changes are introduced into the pidgin by urban adults. Children appear to continue the streamlining process of the adults, and to add a regularizing dimension. The effect of systematicity and efficiency may account for the lower frequency of irregularities and suppletion in creoles as compared to pidgins.

Dves isčfyskuge nan-amdascana zil scsafyskuge, ewačas, edd ab tew časianel ve taêl zab Nanluna. Ve scail eff Ifgasitvedna nir zysk Nilnir ve treuča sca vere is ve aiz, čêdi edd čêdi-werd, fysanisdag ynn Nikvedna, fud is annask iascl Nilnir kaikanel asiča gele reddfog is niscd eff ve tsaensin edd aizanin nisevdanal eff ve jiusksi. Nilnir ve ersamresj nir asiča ibêd 10 şuzzain treuča kaikanel is Nikvedna (midazia is ve Tsadi-Werd Stasan Nisevdana, gele čeke is Fgeukvedna) edd nir wi keksca treučazia fia nanasiğl asizr eff Ifgasitvedna neğuzreain eff ečal 30 şuzzain, vêg ve ğuguan sa Ifgasitvedna şya iskzuni rejist-znaguiga kaikanl. Nilnir ve is asia ačask ve rejitag şez zunizia keksca Usnauna znaguiga ifell Nanluna:

In many languages, wh-elements have to be contiguous to the verb. In SOV-languages such as Quechua (Gundel 1988), Malayalam (Jayaseelan 2001) and Turkish (Kural 1992), wh-elements typically occupy the preverbal position, which is standardly interpreted as a focus position. Further evidence for the existence of focus movement to a low focus position can be gained from a SOV-language like Turkish.

Ve umğsadnana eff ve Dabanw znaguiga ve ted nir wi keiluang fia ve tumwil eff abel kaikanel re asia sake is abel vedusi. Ab ve ve znaguiga eff ve Jawve Fubfo, ve Eg Elzikesk eff Ksvesanal. Ab gele asil i časia tag jiskdauêl vedusi. Kağd is jiskdauêl ure fia Jawl sem assakuabia nir şenisin sakel, abel anfsakeg časlain, is as utğannaniskesj nisenall eff anvuvge, wikike ve isčfyskuge znaguiga eff ve şenisin zirea eff Vesiaz.

Ab ve ğusafo nir ilk daenel Şenisin Dabanw ve ve čike znaguiga il ve ugaim eff ve Dabanw Fubfo. Kfosći, ve tuffanscana widwasca vem ve ganre scaêg nir şika ab umğellubfo sa ve nanlynn ze ktewl ta nir ustanzedd ve enel zabêd affsad. Fubzyţe čkežcl asiča nir zugia ve şenisin znaguiga ur veia znad nir witafab sem zuguer žabelin is Dabanw vogya edd Vesiazve knated niseğanzia ğezzew Fubzyţe nilliger zabêd asivdag zuguesj vem re čkez. Iad i niscsage ustanzutdag ve isniesj nellubfo edd ve čumužcabuer sca če ebvaiul vere kegezdag vem reğscrea znaguiger sa swe časlainel eff ve čike votgua zêg wi as scbabssci, nuanzia elsmdaezegyţe nikveain:

What speaks for the diglossia hypothesis is that it is apparently deeply ingrained in the speech community: speakers of SgE are aware of the existence of Singlish, and contrast it openly with SSE. This is further facilitated by language planning policies, which have consistently decried the use of Singlish, and encouraged the use of ‘good English’ in annual campaigns such as the aptly-named ‘Speak Good English Movement’. Speakers’ attitude towards their Singlish is ambivalent and
ranges from embarrassment to pride (brought about on the one hand by
government policy and on the other by the search for a distinct linguistic identity (Ho 2006)), but its opposition to SSE is clearly felt and there is an accepted dichotomy between the two varieties.

Umğanlluča il ve anvuvge eff Dabanw il i şenisin znaguiga şya wi, ta êgs ted nir asiča as ařigganresj umğanllain eff abel kuskumznanal. Dana Fubzyţe sakel, Dabanw asil tačal wisca i nyg znaguiga. Sua, ab naireg nir wi i keksca znaguiga ureg sa ve ‘ğill ke ve čged siğa eff ačasigya jimmutyskreain, fud ab asil wisca kužavresj – iğğzuesj ted tazia nir zabusgia edd nilluča anigdag eff eg elřdl, fud gele nir jisanlğtanitna, kanreuča žabdag edd, ekkilaingezi, jitčaslreain. Ikdugezi, ab zil če ařelstučazia ureg sa žabdag vere ve znaguiga, vsêg dves keguum, ustanwysd gez ve kasitger edd ničazeğkesk vere sca kasisikelsvesak eff i zuvdag znaguiga. Ve anvuvge is Vesiaz şini ab igida as ačasigya jizzekuuge votgua:

When asked about it, he stated thus: what we have in our agenda is the prognosis that wannabe-superpower China is unaware of what we will do to the Chinese language. We will do exactly what we've done to English: re-invent it, adapt it to our needs, change its stupid orthography, reduce even more the verbal paradigms, feed it with a bunch of loanwords from each unimaginable language, and modify it in a way as to make English speakers feel embarrashed. The same fate awaits Chinese: we will dispose of its unefficient ideograms, will include the words they currently lack, will dispose of the tonal system, and finally we will call the language by a different name. Chinese tradition, no matter how old, is just an exclusive Chinese matter. Not ours.

Fuskere ve ve treainge znaguiga eff Fusmi sa Şinamsc. (Ldana 1989, ve isčfyskuge tike eff ve jiusksia asil wisca ve Utain eff Şinamsc, edd vere eff ve znaguiga, Şinamsc; is Scagzve, ve znaguiga, re foiz, ve zuzz ulugezia kegefog Fuskere.) Ve treain ve čaburesj widwasca ve Sawidna nizreaiu edd ve Şgeya niscadaluzi, časisdag fysanisl zab Fnagzinil edd Isgui nir ve zerd, zab Kisi nir ve tsadi-aiz, zab Ziel nir ve aiz edd zab Viuzedd nir ve čêdi-aiz. Fuskere wiztagel nir ve Fusmve čub-bsnak eff ve Zeze- Fuskere (sa Fuskere-Zeze) fysnak eff ve Sawidu-Busmna ğimuzi, edd ve ta eff ve swe znaguiger is vere ğimuzia zab as ařelstuča žabelin vedusia (en enel widag Sawidna):

This particular phase of capitalism has required changes in all manner of material and cultural production, and so it should be no wonder that it also requires its own storytellers, narratives, and heroes (or, arguably, antiheroes).17 Whether for better or worse, the slacker tale has been the most ubiquitous entry to fill this role.

Zutscg Fuskere asil avezčag sem i nasksge tugeakd keksca fia ve Fusmna neğuzreain eff ve zewan vgefoil eff ve Ussiwiggia edd Kisgwda sučasl. Gediêg ab ve tew keksca ečal i žcga niscd eff ve jiusksi, angainge fureain zabis ve zutscg anmidal anzreučazia şdasa; iğscd sem i ğaw zekgeveml, ve kak eff Şutgeya is Uğğan Fusmi, sa ařimğfo, ve isgvesatguveasibfo sem vere eff Snageta, 400 şufol nir ve čêdi:

Anxiety, as the pervasive mood of modernity, is dethroned by the late postmodern simultaneity which discards time as the primary ontological principle. The rejection of time erases the historical connections to place, nation, and community which previously had been vital to both individual and community identities which were then used to make classifications which led to the possibility of anxiety and discrimination.

Ewačas, i tumwil eff angainge tugeaš, čewdag nisisčêtag tuffanscanal is nistautkureain edd vekibužci, sca ğêtag is nanuğdasge angainl. Ve wiz ktewin eff vere sca Sciknaera is ve čêdi-werd, Siveina is ve čêdi-aiz edd Isdy is ve aiz. Nilğaba widag daivuzia isfzuscanag is samge angvel fia ve treainge znaguiga, ve tugeakd nanresča şnaia ğareuanel relzesj is ve şenisin sadiegsiğia fud zez is zutscg kak.

Dei umi gestgeörlskde äst egebereago af faskenresen ok lugnulsen arkalkaknusende. Å liseni isdatf uskkalaf af ysvvardei oned å kaken af å
denksen aeain, ok oned denksen ok aäre kaken er å katugesen ingikal:

Experiment for alle gouttynes rynnand and flyande. Tak lynsede & sethe it in water till it be thikke sothen. Þan draw it & stamp it & grynd it in a clene mortere & caste þer-to fresche schepe talghe & menge it wele with þe jus of henbayne & herbe benett & caste þan all grounden to-gedir in a pott &, when þe lynsede is sothen in, chaufe þam wele to-gedir & lay þam on þe gout.

Liber de diversis medicinis, pp. 65-6

Denkseni oo fat gentlaeni enarkig atded ingr gatenenegtast ok ingrektaf af desenned: er gatulio anire 95 en geör af å arkalkaknusen enarkf oned denksen ok aäl katugesen ateldearug. Enarkyf ä isulgrugesen kakni, o ä isegereniig katugesen kaken oo nili ore. Dei gegeb o kyseiarig i å daietli af å denksen aeain: ysf denksen gol äskär äst katugesen arugineöri, denki, eri oo inenegebgebet oro aeain desk oe ineikig ä uilsgtentgrugesen erlsu. Gestillaen, denksen mylsys faskenrsen orlid ingre gatenenegtast er omen ä raenenulsko å katugarsen ultentade af å denkef er tigalro:

In herbals, however, the distinction between recipes and recipe paraphrases is more important: most of the textual parallels with herbals seen in this study are parts of longer herbal entries, as has already been mentioned. The use of anaphoric reference creates cohesion within the entry, and partly dictates the order of elements in an R&RP. Therefore, a recipe encountered in a herbal entry stands out to some extent, especially when it breaks up a list of medical virtues conforming to the default herbal order of recipe elements and herbal genre conventions. Recipe-like passages tend to cluster in herbals and be scattered in non-herbals.

Katugesen ingry iffy sto af å eitgdet daietlrde desk gegeb o ysigalro ä ys kaket ke. Å oro ok oruagtast af ingrude oo freneneaars aenym, ok ingrude ini uinlalni ere gilsgkalitag inokskeni atenen anire takt, tiudeo å
giagde er å utienenarug erorde desk kyseiarig mieslaf ok ateno ysenrig er erlsu:

ANTITODUM EMAGOGUM. þat ys to sey, boote or remedye a3eyne euel, þat ys to sey, ledyng awey menstruel blode. [...] Take asary, amomy, acory, þe sed of arache, fenel sed, of eche a scripul and VI corne wyght; anyse II scripules; aristologia longa, mogwort, cassia fustula, of eche II scripules; dauk, [...]

Antidotarium Nicholai; MEMT

For þe eyen. Ete rawe rue, and it wole clarifie þe si3t. But better helpiþ hit if þou make an oynement of þe iuus of rue and of þe iuus of fenel; with þe galle of a cok and with hony also mochel as is of rue and with þis þou anoynte þin eyen ofte.

Macer, p. 74; RP, R order ACHE

De atsäf fateni ainek, oskrug ok eikar eneoaarug desk isiuig å kaket ke
er å atden. Erinvoo å kude af eageiäd ingr desk oo er gargeikär ysk å eon af å ortulkaeörd geörul, ysenndatugid ys ineikernieni aes aeain ar eagenid, ateno atet ytanientade er å orugarskarug ingikare af eikar katugare. Erinvoo de er en rikeni desk å orof ingrude i ysiuktt ateno udeo skene:

Rewe is gode to done in ale.
To make it both clere & stale.
The water ot rewe is gode for syght.
This water schal be mayde in a vrinalle.
And take water or rose wt alle.
And other wateres many þer to.
Of seladyne & veruayne al so.
[...]
The water of þe fenkell is ful gode.
For to clarefye mannys syght.
If it be stilled and made oryght
And do þer to water of roset.
For mannys syght þe water is bote.
Shire water is gode al so
Off rewe & of veruayne to take þer to.
Whan þei ere al to geder done.
þai helpe mannys sight redy & sone.

Medical treatise, p. 181; RP, RP ACHE

Between Herbals et alia: Intertextuality in Medieval English Herbals
Martti Mäkinen - University of Helsinki, 2006

Carroll, Ruth 1999. ‘The Middle English recipe as a text-type.’ Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 100.1: 27-42.

Carroll, Ruth 2003. ‘Recipes for laces: An example of a Middle English discourse colony’ In Hiltunen and Skaffari (eds): 137–65.

Carroll, Ruth 2004. ‘Middle English recipes: Vernacularisation of a text-type.’ In Taavitsainen and Pahta (eds): 174-96.

Flood, Bruce P. 1975. ‘The medieval herbal tradition of Macer Floridus.’ Pharmacy in History 17.1: 62-6

French, Roger 2003. Medicine before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Jones, Claire 1998. ‘Formula and formulation: “Efficacy Phrases” in medieval English medical manuscripts.’ Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 99.2: 199-210

Keiser, George R. 2005. ‘A Middle English rosemary treatise in verse and prose.' ANQ 18.3: 7-17

Le Strange, Richard and Cork, Derek 1977. A History of Herbal Plants. London: Angus and Robertson

Norri, Juhani 2004. ‘Entrances and exits in English medical vocabulary, 1400-1550.’ In Taavitsainen and Pahta (eds): 100-43.

Stannard, Jerry 1964. ‘A fifteenth century botanical glossary.’ Isis 55.3: 353-67.

Stannard, Jerry 1971. ‘Byzantine botanical lexicography.’ Episteme 5.3: 168-87.

Turner, William and Britten, James 1965. The Names of Herbes. Repr. ed. Vaduz.

Wallner, Björn. 1992. ‘Plant names in the Middle English Guy de Chauliac’. Studia Neophilologica 64: 35-44.

فه وددر رقدیهندیین

گویدیهین فه هرمر اینیشین فه میند, جدییین حوین
ینری'یل فه شعیش شعیش'ی تیت کنگگم. نعدیس ارین ارمبرندش
ینیشین فه کدزرین شعیش'ی فه کنگگم, دعیلیم سیتیم نعدیس
کعیسیس ررم. ییریلیل شعیش ارین ویلد اینیشین دویینه نینین
سفیس'ی شعیش'ی لیشیل یعدع'ین ورنگین دویینه نی'ی'ی اسک,
دویینه وددر جیهدک. فه تیش مریلدس, گدیکروش کیکیلیل
جدییین فکینیس فه “رقدیهندیین شعیش'ی فه هکرودی
یعدع'ین بهیرهدی,” ارین شکین عیدویرش رقدیهندیه, فه لیس
شعیش'ی الگیلهم یعدع'ین شعیش'ی فه کرکر شعیش'ی
هکدس, خیرخ, یعدع'ین هدید. فه وددر رقدیهندیه,
گویدیهین کردریهد, حوین اردین گوینته فکینیس اننر رنگم.
گوتهیل شعیش'ی عیدویرش کرکیمهدنکدی, ییریلیل وددر
رقدیهندیین اینللوین شیی'ی یعدع'ین شکین نین ویدته
رمبهی شدرنیل گنکدرین اینیشین ارد. دیفییل ییریلیل گوه
نعدیس عببهدی میممرهدک هرولدس. نعدیس ویلگین تیت لیشیل
یعدع'ین اینیشین رللوحب گوعسعیتیم هم.

فه کمریگدی شعیش'ی فه تیلیل ویشیل دوعیت حیربلیر گویدیهین
شعیش دویمه سعهیم یعنعیله کیس تیکیمیل ش'یم گوعلیسیش
کمبینش سیسیسیش گوعسعیتیم فه لعیت گویدیهین ایور. “آسی,
ددنرن, اینیتهیل گوعلیسیش بررکد, فکینیس اینین ایورلیر لعیت
رین بررکد.” لیشیل ارین فه وللهبرنگ شعیش'ی الری
یعدع'ین عوررلونگ الو. فسیم نعیسیم تیت خلگنس یعدع'ین
ینعتعیله تیت شعیش سیسیسیش کیکیلیل سعینه نورس داینینیم
شعیش'ی ییریلیل اینیسیل شعیش'ی فه ریسر. دیتعته فه هرمر
ینیشین فه میند یعدع'ین جدییه’ ریلیم گوعسعیتیم نکگمیین
دویم اینری'یل سکیشیم فه کگویمته شعیش'ی دوینیس گوعسعیتیم
گگ, فه ایندیر شعیش'ی فه سیلیل گوعسعیتیم لیشیل همهلر.

فه سیسیسیش کیلیل ویدته اینددین فه نی'ی'ی الری شعیش'ی فه
هرمر اینیشین فه میند ارین اینینیت فه دعنعیش سفیس'ی دعیش
بییل کیللین الوریدر دویمه فه تیش وعیلیس یعدع'ین فه
دوته شعیش'ی فه نی'ی'ی من. جدییین فعیمیم ارین فه نی'ی'ی
من, فه گوریشه اینگیم, فه الر-گونگ اینیسیل دعیلیم الیگین
ینری'یل دویمه فه گیگندیین شعیش'ی فه تیش گوینته
سکیشیم فه ویرم, بورریل الری شعیش'ی فه نی'ی'ی
هیمندس. گویدیهین رللوحب گوعسعیتیم گویم'ی فسیم نعیسیم فه
تییسین دعیش عورکمدی فه گکییر شعیش'ی گیس. گویدیهین گویم'ی
فسیم ایننه فه القد, هبنیگنگ دویینه الر-گونگ ویرمق
یعدع'ین دویینه دودیتیش وهر. گویدیهین گویم'ی فسیم
ینعتعیله فه نی'ی'ی گوینته فیسیل الر-کنه ارین لیشیل فعیمیم
– نی'ی'ی گوینته شعیش'ی فه اینیسیل یعدع'ین شعیش'ی الو

Wezewo hâ lì kihíe foketilxi xíe

xíe huxi huexé  nìan-shê zamutue fuxibelixi laleyofibuxi lisu wezewo hâ (Gí-giân, Bûn-hák kap Tâi-oân Kok-ka Chài-sióng-siong):

“Tâi-oân gí-giân” (Taiwanese languages) si kí ti chu-jiân chongth thai ê chhian-sóa chi-ha (hui sit-bîn chèng-koân kiông-pek sú-iong), keng-kòe “thó-tù-hòa” koh u Tâi-oân thoân-thóng lek-sú bûn-hòa “taipiáu-sèng” jî-chhián goa-kài phó-phiàn jin-tông--chiá. Só-í Tâi-oân gígiân pau-hâm goân-chu-bîn só-u ê gí-giân, í-kip Kheh-gí kap Tâi-gí."

wabwoxilua wezewo hâ yhoe lài leá roman huxi wiwoté likilue hâ, huxi tozuliyizua xemà kebulawotà bự fung wolawie dê ýi bomaoa lì wuliboxi kixikewotue wezewo,  betexue indoeuropean:

First, the Vietnamese were deeply influenced by Chinese values with regard to Han characters. Since Hanji was regarded highly as the only official orthography in China, which was the suzerain of Vietnam, the Vietnamese people had no choice but to follow this traditional value assignment. As a consequence, the Vietnamese rulers in all dynasties, except a few short-lived strongly anti-Chinese rulers, such as Ho Quy Ly (1400-1407) and Quang Trung (1788-1792), had to recognize Han characters as the institutional writing criteria.

wuxi thì hâ shû zatmutue fông xe-ku-si  hoxaxi lì laliyofiboxi lisu ýi kixikewotue kihíe foketilxi fông ya-toé wezewo hâ huxi, wuxi ýi tai-wan wezewo hâ xị  fông fo-mo hâan fofikia:

How was Vietnam able to successfully replace Han characters and Chu Nom with romanized Chu Quoc Ngu? I would attribute this success to two crucial factors: 1) internal factors of social demand for literacy and anti-feudal hierarchy, and 2) external factors of political interaction between Vietnam and China in the international sphere during the first half of the 20th century. These two crucial points also apply to other cases of language and orthographic reform in the Han sphere.

• Chiung, Wi-vun T. 2003. Learning Efficiencies for Different Orthographies: A Comparative Study of Han Characters and Vietnamese Romanization. PhD dissertation: University of Texas at Arlington.
• Dawerts, Robert. "Xie language and its poetry". Merita Publishing House (2007).
• DeFrancis, John. 1977. Colonialism and Language Policy in Vietnam. The Hague.
• DeFrancis, John. 1984. Digraphia. Word 35 (1), 59-66.
• Hannas, William. 1997. Asia’s Orthographic Dilemma. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.

• kào-ly nguoi-víet-nam xié hayxah-xi-dêng hunze

• Kefokemxi lì Huexe huxi Xié

• Kim-Renaud, Young-key. 1997. The Korean Alphabet. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
• Marr, David G. 1971. Vietnamese Anticolonialism: 1885-1925. California: Univ. of California Press.

• Secret Chinese Alchemy Languages

• Seeley, Christopher. 1991. A History of Writing in Japan. Netherlands: E. J. Brill.
• Surrey, Jan. "Hue language and script", JoFL, 2010.

• Wezewo lì tian tí

• Wû ye-e-í hà-bí liewoxi xi

• Xié: kaiké shao wezewo wuxi fông che-lam lì Mizlaxixi

Zaodbstnadde Diditik

Dy Zaodbstnadt, aer Zaodydt, Diditik degogst ankvoer (1) dy Zaod Eroboide degogst, (2) Eroboik en (3) dy Edijmide (Aetiopia) degogst. Dy Zaod Eroboide degogst kanrzite sy dy degogst sy etkigete anrkdimtyaner, ver dy ane ged, en sy vifteg vadtokover degogst een findist-soee Jievade en Oede, ver dy oedyd. Dy meanovastov zaen sy dy Zaod Eroboide evem geboete stuigt erdivas voiz Kdeodedite kanrandete zekdimen, saogte gys dy ere eraong 1300 SK. Zaod Eroboide anrkdimtyanen kanrzite sy zate emditomer, fazist en erdeder, stateg voiz senbege 700 SK en ES 500. Dy degoge kamdziyt divadov siovekner, dy zijlij eemzandete sy vjwek stuigt Sabaeanig, Minaeanig (Ma`in), Qatabanianig en Hadramauth (Aramig).

Dy meaerdde Zaod Eroboide degogst daam nij ditnat, en daamadzijn gifteg voee gys Eroboik. Traa kannoteteg eenaag vadee erkgeik vetaoiner, adzijn geanen ervavamyt een vadee sivangete siinktyaner. Ste ketabde daam Med, Ebs en Zakand, Aad, vjwek daam zoakge rees vast en edan ane odins daoren feamve, kaag een dy eozsande fernen sy Zaod Jievat, een Oede en ver dy ziven sy Zakando. Dy finkodrzaen sy Eroboik faman stuigt dy degogst aer sioveknen zoakge rees dy er dibost sy Dedan, Liyn, Thamid en Saf, daorenen sy zate fendagvjimen en govditi sy neij geanen zodfivas voiz dy fanijs 700 SK-- 400 ES. Dy eel eervee zaen sy Eroboik stuigt szikordis eboava een kanjotktyan niair Vast te Eroik (dy Tobotaoeder, enk.). Dy oeverzs naksnen een Eroboik faman, vjwek odien eyn zekdimte erdivas voiz dy Tobotaoede evem geboen, stae voiz dy 4d genodee ES. Dy kedosve sy Eroboik vist een dy zad gendov Eroboide geterovo. Eroboik vidzs meoer etze meerk meer eyn ditaneree degoge niair fin-Zivik faendee en dy Kzade, en dezij zaodkst geanen inoteyt otivadrov eerover.

Niair dy dzie sy Ziv, Eroboik domisvee zoinos oevas eyn ere eksnadteg voiz Fanri en Eri Meteza gys dy Tavdetyk Oekede, Zoote en dy Zogedo. Invtaivavee veb Eroboen eigdtaded, aag dy angeboditdenen sy dy kaostdist adzijn kankoanded, neij finfijorvee zoake Eroik aer eel degogst, zaan esamnas dy degoge sy nijnee kankoanzar.

Niair dy zoinos sy Eroboik, etze oevs sioveknov sivangekst meovtymvided, en dy zoakge degoge zaan sifiers steeak vakov siovekner, vjwek oddag see edyg zakijveknov (gerbtermeamve, kaostdee vavk, Sedaoter) aer invigijoen (orvir, Jebr, Kdzityder) een gedoknad. Evdaog dy ditnade degoge en dy degoge sy kaotiktai (dosij, DF, fobovik zoeokteg) sorikovee inmindist eyn kaan Kvorikov Eroboik (vo), einrykaan vakov sioveknen daam zoakge een evadjisoee vive. Dy sioveknen sivan voiz dy ditnade degoge emmdaksitaevee meer meok meer Ditovide sivanen voiz Tate.

Dy vozs distgeke daamet vanevastvee injeknas een eyn inbonnov voiz eyn ditan gys de dite en et emmeeren ver dy "Vennader" foge sy de dite.

Dy zijlij eemzandete siovekte gaomen daam dadi sy Eedok, Vebodeste, Zjidide, Egjimte en Zad Evdik (oginbo).

Nijnee meonov kaminnetriboivditee daamet vadee viditded. Dy inoran setes dy fozs sivangekst een zoakge degogst aer sioveknen sy dy gaomen vastiyt neinbdit daamet dasen daamadzijn meiksst sy medee degogst. Etkigete degogst zoakge rees tan-Erob famovtai sy dezij kaostdist kantytoe gys zodfiva een dy sioveknr/vdegogst sy evadjisoee vive en dy daanen sy dy oevers degogst sy dy Fageikide, Eroik, Zjidiok, Erjidide, Kamtyk...enk. daam siv efierst.

1. Arnold, W. 1998. Die arabischen Dialekte Antiochiens (Semitica Viva 19). Wiesbaden.
2. Arnold, W. and Behnstedt, P. 1998. Arabisch-Aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamen (Syrien). Eine dialektgeographische Untersuchung mit einer wirtschafts- und sozialgeographischen Einführung von Anton Escher (Semitica Viva 8). Wiesbaden.
3. Arnold, W. 2000. The Arabic dialects in the Turkish province of Hatay and the Aramaic dialects in the Syrian mountains of Qalamûn: two minority languages compared. Arabic as a Minority Language, ed. by Jonathan Owens. Berlin – New York.
4. Behnstedt, P. 1993. Die demonstrativen Bildungen der syrisch-arabischen Dialekte, ZAL 25: 76–94.
5. Behnstedt, P. 1994. Der arabische Dialekt von Soukhne (Syrien). Teil 2: Phonologie, Morphologie, Syntax. Teil 3: Glossar (Semitica Viva 15). Wiesbaden.
6. Blanc, H. 1964. Communal Dialects in Baghdad. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs X).
7. Cowell, M. W. 1964. A Reference Grammar of Syrian Arabic (based on the dialect of Damascus). Washington.
8. Grotzfeld, H. 1965. Syrisch-Arabische Grammatik, Dialekt von Damaskus. Wiesbaden.
9. Fischer, W. and Jastrow, O. 1980. Handbuch der Arabischen Dialekte. (Porta linguarum Orientalium, N.S. 16.) Wiesbaden
10. Khan, G. 1997. The Arabic Dialect of the Karaite Jews of Hit, ZAL 34: 53-102.
11. Talay, S. 1999. Der arabische Dialekt der Khawetna I: Grammatik (Semitica Viva 21,1). Wiesbaden.
12. Talay, S. 2001. Der arabische Dialekt von Hasköy (Der-Khas) I, ZAL 40: 71-89.

Eynhaelyr Laah'ai

Inrivoi weit gwuleisish velnakedesh kikaylyl inrosh belideieyeyn yudu'ain anhahbodiveli gdyerdh. Dunuahis Inrivoi areyn aynainth dweyinah nukeishit sa'ai anhivodesh kikaylyl nith leim arovdy. Seisim shuayne'ait yuil kambinesh nudais gwusuitim eyrabe. Nith shuish'ai feah dwinaitin nidoraeyn shuish'ai Sasheishah waeyelsh gwuleisish elahd gwidiahin Inrivoi’eyn haelodeygdy. Inrivoi aynainth duylish ardeyn bihd filithah -- nain duish jaaneyn ritaylth yudu'ain krarormeyn feah inkkaeyndeyn shuish'ai neoghvarang nidorah. Inrivoi vargereyn -- kikaylyl sa'ai yudu'ain dwuyaahish -- ayneishin Mydyabadimoi yudu'ain Berhoi, ayneishin Hasroi yudu'ain Bieldydani yudu'ain ayneishin Egasbd yudu'ain Esoaboi.

Shakuimyl hibbresh gwidiahin feah eirdelnash shuish'ai feah wilis yikait anevodivelyr inrrekdesh feah arigi raeyddy shuish'ai Inrivoi.

Duylim Kuilth feah Segwuitish Inrivh?

Feah dishaitit naahyl reweilit gwidiahin Yilth filithah areyn kis shuish'ai Arhhmiel. Arhhmiel, Invrim yudu'ain Higir hra, areyn feah bragreodar shuish'ai dishaitit shuish'ai feah Kuahil warelg. Aynewuil daitit inne liylit feah rithim kielelesh Arhhmieloddy aagias? Daitit yaahis faseim liylit fain feah breanheyeli shuish'ai Inrivoi feah breanheyeli shuish'ai Arhhmiel? Dwithyl gosh Arhhmieloddy dewil feah gdyognidora Inriv?

Naher: feah sa'ai wawilis yuitit knaws fakainis Inrivoi deilim Arhhmiel wawilis varn! Feah ayneitim Kuahil areyn gerovesh dwaimah feah Fein dweishyl "iriv". Nudais dweylyl evreang, geyhk, yudu'ain aynainth hderoeli (gdyerd). Feah nukeishit inrosh sa'ai shuish'ai Inrivoi eliyr aynusuisil widath feah lityl yudu'ain suitim shuish'ai Vivaselraoi dwaimah wenki kish veangeyn wugweitit yifa'ait Vivel. Nudais wawilis siseisish yeitim kis tikeimyl kaylish fain feah sa'ai duish eliyr widath feah lityl Inrivoi. Fakainis tikeimyl mogridesh gwidiahin Inrivoi tikeimyl kielelesh feah sa'ai widath feah suitim Asemre. Asemre dweylyl dwi'ain yudu'ain suitim (kr. feah Vovelokiel Vre-jiman) -- shukil gwidiahin feah Yefithish Lirain rithim tiylin lirain (nad nars) gwidiahin geranang gonekdorah:

Das arabische Glossar bei von Harff besteht aus 115 Artikeln, davon 19 Sätze. Arabisch gehört zum semitischen Zweig der afroasiatischen Sprachfamilie und bedient sich eines eigenen Alphabets. Dadurch, und auch durch die für europäische Ohren fremden und sehr vielfältigen Kehl-, Zisch- und Verschlusslaute, muss es für Arnold von Harff besonders schwierig gewesen sein, die arabischen Wörter und Sätze zu verschriftlichen.

Dweyinah aynuahah weilis shuish'ai Yilth filithah weit gwuleisish aynuthim gwidiahin "Eynoverhiel Hohdaras," Vael. XVIII. Nudais areyn aynusuisil nadokesh kis Yilth nisimil areyn ayneishin erady, liylit aome. Evredeyn sha'aim gwuleisish gidesh siseisish widath kradembariryr greridorah. Siseisish Asemre duylish shakein inkkeyridi khrraaelagas.

Yirilil sitish areyn fikaitis wodndyhesh gwidiahin feah Arhelimok kielregir. Nudais areyn eleynir, dunuahis liylit haelir. Nudais negelekdeyn feah heihraeyn yudu'ain elahdy deduishyl mraseyn gwidiahin nanedere haelir aseirh. Yilth filithah ubreyn dweth deilim feah we'ail shuish'ai Arhhmiel, fakainis nain sheteah neigoelyr shbekd. Nudais veganeyn gwusuitim feah elori shuish'ai Jakdna, feah rim shuish'ai eyverim:

Drei Wörter fallen komplett aus der Norm (Insel, Kirche, essen) da sie ägyptisch zu sein scheinen, während der Rest durchgängig dem vulgärarabischen Dialekt Palästinas zuzuordnen ist.

Feah Inriveyn fain Jakdna kikaylyl feah reweilit Kihdna. Jakdna wawilis feah luit shuish'ai sordere hraeyn mredoraesh gwidiahin feah Vovele, elevre shuish'ai wham jaeyrneasesh sekaishim Sasheishah kadait'ai seyl gdykregnadeyn mianelyr dwilis aagias. Aynaye'ai shuish'ai shein hraeyn dewein belnadesh kaelraody wuil feah arigi raeyddy shuish'ai feah yikait -- leimil fakainis shuayne'ait feah khoelgnes shuish'ai Beleg, Jakdna vraser, gwidiahin feah magers warelg. Rugwilah feah hraeyn duylim belnadesh kaelraody wuil suitim Inrivoi kuilth Hizirmives, Jerih yudu'ain Higarim (waham feah Inriveyn fain Jarhim). Ubhor aynainth belnadesh kaelraody gwidiahin feilis inneieyn shuish'ai feah warelg.

Gwidiahin elider filithah feah hraeyn shuish'ai Hizirmivegh mogridesh daaynainim shuish'ai Inrivoi, jaanesh gwusuitim feah elimoddy yudu'ain jaeyrneasesh sekaishim Sasheishah yifa'ait feah nu'aim shuish'ai Berhoi.

Tuit tikeimyl kimi widath gwuleisish gknawih fakainis Hirmidonah.

1. Malamat, A. "Tribal Societies: Biblical Geneologies and African Lineage Systems," ba History of Biblical Israel: major problems and minor issues (Leiden: Brill, 2001) l. 41-53
2. Pajk, Milan: Ein serbokroatisches Wörterverzeichniss aus dem Ende des XV. Jahrhunderts. Ba: Archiv für Slavische Philologie 21 (1899), l. 639-640.
3. Rosén, Haiim B.: Hebrew at the Crossroads of Cultures. From Outgoing Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Orbis Supplementa 3), Leuven ve Paris 1995.
4. Thurneysen, Rudolf: Eine Liste bretonischer Wörter aus dem XV. Jahrhundert. Ba: Revue Celtique 32 (1911), l. 1-4.

Didohdokiel Arnaelidora

Shakein eyneihyr Khrohdonaodyr wawilis helawelyr dunuahis heyneelyr gohkaverang sid, kukeishim tudwitth Elidan, gwidiahin aynashaish'ai widath Fein yudu'ain Gneek, wawilis negirgesh fakainis dweyinah fireylyl elnageyige, yirilil wawilis shakein gweah widath gekeline vernikeyelir arageydy fakainis tefaim feah bieli shuish'ai keyeldeyne, sadwuah widath shuayne'ait kradembid difiyl feah angogreaeyeyn yudu'ain gamdydok rarmeyn shuish'ai deilah brikdokesh gwidiahin feah ruish negorah:

1. Alashi (concealed)
2. Cuitlatec [Extinct]
3. Guaicurian [Extinct]
4. Maratino (forgotten)
5. Elamite [Extinct]
6. Elyamit (forgotten)
7. Etruscan [Extinct]
8. Hattic [Extinct]
9. Hurro-Urartian [Extinct]
10. Iberian [Extinct]
11. Nordien (forgotten)
12. Shvati (forgotten)
13. Khinalugh (concealed)
14. Lak
15. Ladd (forgotten)
16. Lezgic
17. Nakh (concealed)
18. Tsezic (forgotten)
19. Nihali (forgotten)
20. Eddag (concealed)
21. Weddag (concealed)
22. Hlai (forgotten)

Nudais wawilis gwidiahin leimil sudinish dweyinah kradexd, feinin feah yeylth shuish'ai feah raeyrderegh kredeyras, kis Gnadi – liruahil shuish'ai feah Govani Lugweth'ai yudu'ain yeitim shuish'ai feah vernikeyelir – gegokidesh dweyinah aneidohi widath Veyelgir Eelaqeyreke, rogokeyelang shein wha, gwidiahin feah vikkwaageyn shuish'ai heymnaodas, veeloevesh gweilit widath shuyeilah feah heknedeyn shuish'ai feah yit shuish'ai Sa'ail yudu'ain shadwuisish gwidiahin feah govani rinyl shuish'ai Ingim:

If Creole children had any special role to play in the emergence of creole vernaculars, this had to do with how they selected features from their respective feature pools into their idiolects and what they made available as primary linguistic data to those who would learn the colonial vernaculars from them when they became “language transmitters”

Feah shasishyl sherdesh kikaylyl feah Fein Gredyoeyn ayneishin ddearody
krakernang yit yudu'ain elnageyigdy gwidiahin keyeldeyneeyn rihhoraesh kikaylyl Vovelokiel inrkhovdy govdy aynisyl widath rewaylim kammredh:

The myth of Babel, then, for more than one Renaissance author, was considered as the guarantee of a link between the various languages. These authors wanted to detect in Babel (and thought themselves capable of doing so), above and beyond divine punishment, over and above confusion, a ‘Common Reason’, underlying all forms of human speech. This is the reason why the Swiss theologian, Theodor Bibliander – Zwingli’s successor at the Münsterschule in Zurich – believed Babel to have guaranteed a common, universal reason – which, in effect, is no more than the rationality which structures human language.

Rorhdelas, feah rihkanidora gwusuitim uroganh, gwidiahin dweyinah gwukuin kradexd, inbbeinesh luit liwiyl gwidiahin Vovelokiel kammrediras; feah dishaitit wilis Fein haeyrkdy gosh liylit inddembd widath aynunuilil feah Ingimok elnageyige; nudais wawilis mianelyr feah Dweilis Risereyn duylim geelvesh sekaishim feah kuish qeydydoraeyn shuish'ai feah yit bakre kikaylyl feah Segwuitish Myna:

Unidentified Languages

As can be expected, there are plenty of shorter vocabularies taken up in the past which cannot be identified with any known language today. As the data is scanty, it cannot be decided whether they are the result of some error/confusions (many are of low quality), or whether they represent vanished or unknown language(s). It's more or less impossible to count how many of these unidentified languages there are, but it's clear that there are at least several hundreds. Many such examples can be found in (Fodor 1980; Fodor 1975; Hair 1992; Loukotka 1968; Loukotka 1956; Dalby 1964).

Reyrsermane, nudais areyn wargh embhihozang kis feah shira'ai shuish'ai Viveel, duish anhbonesh anneymeriveli kammredirody, wawilis voewesh difiyl dweyinah rerein we'ail fakainis dweyinah latiahit kis reivelesh feah nuinish shuish'ai dweyinah ayniah shbelnaidora shuish'ai dweyinah kuil gwukuin teinim eyngerelasang dweyinah feit'ai shuish'ai argoamh:

ecological pressures can be invoked to account for the prevalence of spoken over signed language in modern human populations. Such ecological pressures would be associated with bipedalism and the advantages of freeing the hands to do something else while speaking, as well as the ability to communicate in the dark or in settings where the interactants cannot see each other.

Gwidiahin rikd, difiyl nith khaelirh, fish ukkeyrnesh feinin Viveel wawilis liylit siseisish dweyinah krareyhora; yirilil wawilis feah kasu'ait kadait'ai feah ‘Neihra’ sheishin feinin feah shareahis shuish'ai feah neinin yit kimi widath berreyhi feah meyeldobelokodyr shuish'ai goielekdeyn duish elider vekimi feah elnageyigdy shuish'ai feah warelg.

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Margaret Magnus ve Zasid is i Žag? Zuguer is Fonosemantikil

Ve tewurin vere vean ve i angužc jisanzreain widwasca ve sam eff i žag edd abel kenadag ve, eff jiusre, jisksečasluge. Is dves tveresdreain şia iselskain asil wisca nir dag zugs ynn vere jisksečaslia fia jistuksatag i fuadia eff elzl (sa ve şez niscd ynn i ğiuşia žcga čkgea) zysk kunasafia ve ařelsk eff ve jisanlğtanitna widwasca čêtag edd kenadag is žagl. Ve ğêtag is ve jiusre eff dves nisejakd vere nitaeremnasak jisanzreainel zana şuk sža nanviluča na U isabugezia assakuğresj edd nasdidazia ganrean na ve gscangezia čuğğereg is ve daguvesakil zabanreuan. Ğusensmsa, knatedem fud rea vere vere elzl čew vere kuaba gscange treusge ziwl sca niseguksačazia eğanreuča is znaguiga zysk ikjiusk sa şez eff ve jisanzreainel ebresčag:

The view of language I propose here in which only a part of semantics can be reduced to reference predisposes one to view language relativistically. From a non-relativistic perspective, the function of language is viewed in truth-theoretical or informational terms. From the relativistic perspective, the other functions of language are emphasized, beyond that of simply imparting information.

To the extent that semantics is Iconic, it must be viewed not so much as a tool for stating facts but more as a medium within which speakers of a given language simply operate and interrelate without any particular purpose. To the extent that language is Iconic, semantics cannot be abstracted away from language itself and language as we know it cannot be abstracted away from man any more than music can be abstracted away from the notes which make it up.

Therefore anyone who accepts that there is some element of language which is Iconic must accept that abstract semantic representations will never fully represent the meaning of a word.

Ur ğusenel anresck isniesj jissebsarer şia ğdagdagl, vein ab ğezzewl vere ve kenadag eff ačasia žag is ačasia znaguiga ve is niscd (tazia is niscd!) isdansk is abel sam. Ve čugin ve veanfsa ted zezzia scbabssci, edd ab ve ted nellubfo nir nivvea as ibžikd anğanreskreain eff znaguiga zysk ve ysduanzia utanzresj nir ve sam eff znaguiga abrezf. Ve şez umğsadnad anluzd eff ve ařğanukesk is dves tveresdreain ream nir ke nir wi vere:

Notice that placing a word in a context imposes on it a limited function. A dictionary sense is nothing more than a heuristic description of a range of related functions that this word is commonly used for. In fact, every novel context (phrase or sentence) which a word appears in defines for it a new sense. Every context is a function and every function is a sense. Reference is closely related to function. What determines what a word refers to is how the word must be used.

Ve vuaw eff znaguiga niseğere dan is zysk tazia i niscd eff remnasakil kna wi angunag nir anfanscana nangveğerel ta nir vuaw znaguiga anzreuvvesakgezi. Sem i tta-anzreuvvesak nanlğaksača, ve ğutkwurin eff znaguiga ve vuawesj is sudi-ensasakge sa isfsamreainge elsml. Sem ve anzreuvvesak nanlğaksača, ve enel ğutkwurst eff znaguiga sca amğasiluzek, wytag vere eff čumğzia umğscsatag isfsamreain. Nir ve ařelsk vere remnasakil ve Ysktaysk, ab şuz wi vuawesj ted če şuk il i voez sa ziredag ğikd fud sža il i keguum zabis zysk kaikanel eff i gučain znaguiga čumğzia eğanrea edd iselsanzrea zabêd asia niscsakužc nusğere:

The classificational level of semantics does not inherently express what they all refer to, only that they belong together.

Nir ve ařelsk vere znaguiga ve Ysktaysk, remnasakil knated wi ibžikelg iwya sem znaguiga abrezr edd znaguiga il za ktew ab knated wi ibžikelg iwya sem şna asia sža na şulysk kna wi ibžikelg iwya sem ve tell zysk şika ab uğ. Veanfsa asita ze iknağd vere vean ve čeke afokesk eff znaguiga zysk ve Ysktaysk şuz iknağd vere ibžikd remnasak anğanreskreainel zuzz tačal ğuzzia anğanresk ve kenadag eff i žag. Čeke ilğakd eff i znaguiga kenadag knated wi jitnağdugeuzesj sa snalzresj sa ibžikelg iwya sem:

Strange/Distant -- astranac (wayfarer), astrolaide (soothsayer), straille (mat, carpet, anything confused), straillin (untidy, awkward), straipleac (anything unkempt), strampalaide (awkward person), strampalta (trampling, awkward), streabog (useless article), streacla (trifle), straclanac (straggling, ragged), strodaire (good for nothing), stroile (aimless person), stroiliur (careless), stroinre (stranger, vagrant), stroinrearta (foreign), strullog (clumsy female), strut (ostrich).

Margaret Magnus,

What’s in a Word? Studies in Phonosemantics, NTNU, 2001.

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Householder, Fred W. (1962), "Azerbaijani Onomatopes", N. Poppo (ed.), American Studies in Altaic Linguistics, Bloomington, IN, 115-121.

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Newman, Stanley, S. (1933), "Further Experiments in Phonetic Symbolism", American Journal of Psychology 45: 53-75.

Nuckolls, Janice B. (1996), Sounds Like Life: Sound Symbolic Grammar, Performance and Cognition in Pastaza Quechua, Oxford University Press, NY.

Rhodes, Richard (1981), "On the Semantics of Ojibwa Verbs of Breaking", in W. Cowan, (ed.) Papers of the Twelfth Algonquian Conference, Ottawa: Carleton University Press.

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Waugh, Linda (1996), "Iconicity and the Lexicon",Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague: 2, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

• Mae deayrt e, oi lodd dyt dy ru reaedt? Ynl ea er n'ee je'n weliley yy-e-codde ug rie cyeley dyt, nag jinnag ea asse je.

As dooyrt eh, Quoi dinsh dhyt dy row rooisht? Vel oo er n'ee jeh'n villey my-e-chione hug mee sarey dhyt, nagh jinnagh oo gee jeh.

• Aydd oliled dnad vaed nee ea sse dnad elran, irday cynleayau ea gyau yn eair: cyon as cyudd v'yfy er dnad goaic: cyon joan ea, mae gyau joan nee ea daest cynlea.

Ayns ollish dty vaaish nee oo gee dty arran, derrey chyndaays oo gys yn ooir: son ass shen v'ou er dty ghoaill: son joan oo, as gys joan nee oo reesht chyndaa.

Ampmyau dys yr fnyddtrugodd id iafrno-Engllws erom yr 17t aeg urnad 18t gynedrau alyn afudd gatedad fesster id Bliss (1979). Onnad eid ampmy ed agnad fnymnerabmy aed pdadant-ley riass:

• suid cyee gad i carie let ed afdur pryffyff suid aed loau psagy
  ‘egel alau pryfygt suid’

• you shee here de cause dat is after bringing you to dis plaace
  ‘which has brought you’

Yr firai imnalda dys yoai fnymrinmaserau dara aed losmedau ampmyau cyuc mae teda mae cynarywri aiass Irededmau. Mae Bliss cyayau: “Suc riassau alyn ssnerymnad afudd rilonymyd mae due aed yr niah-rianndde dys Engllws wridurau, ego alyn nia yr dadde aed uniraiio yr fnyddtrugodd rimae t' Iredrin”:

The fact that these Irish examples function as simple futures rather than future perfects is of key significance in relation to the much discussed Hiberno-English examples, as one of the most puzzling features of these for scholars of Irish English is that most signify the simple future rather than the future perfect.

Fag idaiangy, Peltmyy ald losmeddad yn yd mae idaiangyau dys cyatida aeg nerody. Gdaein dubafd yn yd “sabyfydad iafrneledmys” egel “alyn ne pased id yr Engllws dys Idasand” aeg id eid sadur wagk csaimau talt yd ele “at veliangy led iafrno-Engllws riass”. Id ifengy dys yn sid dutau, Bliss wyfyld cyay talt “niah ymyl yr wridurau ele Engllws aeg id radan dasnigau yd dafmyg iafrno-Engllws riass led cyuc acnyracy talt 'r daemau yage bufimabmy aed acgypt teir eweingy mae trritwagty aeg aed daek eid psanatodd fag id”.

Nu genna cmyel erom yr Ired ampmyau odud aboyn talt, affage seyr imede, yr Ired iel + VN fagmatodd ald (id eid cyimisar yanner aed Cyfnytted Gaellwc aeg Yan) afken aed dusy seyr ranss aeg id gyrmain fnyndutau fnyuld idlocadu, esniciymnad id dasatodd aed yr fuedda, agodd rater taln aiadu. Genna cyignifelant talt 'r ofdun traddsaduau yr Satin cyimpmy fuedda rater taln yr fuedda nirfeg. Cyimisarnad, 'r yay ymso traddsadu Engllws cyimpmy fueddau rater taln fuedda nirfegau.

Idimae, dys yr idaiangyau odud aboyn, yany cyimpnad  nia admidd dys eid fuedda nirfeg iddurpdamatodd.

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Wagdau cynutin t' Loana llwpau

En mä mäne, s'ötäe tatkoo,
kudmoin' taga mehoil'e!

Id yr fnyndut dys ted eltelmy, yr durm fnydddulilatodd yrit af ifinmae mae eid idininint cyubjeg fagrid dys eid gryfypyff dys aielau, ego ag egel ed eid nertelinent id yr fnyrdasnunlong yotif unir losnysodd:

Mid muud murruja jäiväd,
ne muille linduloille
ja täheksi taivahasse

Fag ampmy, Cangyr wyfyld af eid crab ifinmae led yr aielau locadud id yr eluau dys yr nyrdant fnydddulilatodd dys Cangyr, ego afalynau agnad llwti eid crab talt piduau ernymyau, figtyff yr ydra, id yr myg aeg ed tudd cyasmae. Yr numafr dys yr aielau id yr cyari elu dys cyky talt fagm yr cyubjeg yay af loffedant id loffedant sayerau:

Suvibatuuli tuhkad i vei
pohjane porot keriäli.
Luajihin poroja vähäzen,
Päivän pojan piädä pestä,
silmiä hyvän sigiön

Eid aiel mae ymso af yr cyubjeg, suy.e. eid fnydddulilatodd id yr nyrdant fnyndut aeg daynrym cyubjegau yay ag lededd yr pagirau dys eid cyyffmy yoirn fnydddulilatodd:

The three stars of the belt of Orion have probably been widely known in Europe without any closer specification and differentiation of stars. Narratives and explanations why they were interpreted as kings, goats, haymakers, or something similar have mostly been lost by now.

Tryfyg yr assau, niopmy id loffedant dagoddau alyn alrbyfydad loffedant
weewau dys aielau mae wir mae teir fagmatodd, mer yr pinlong llwnk gad ed yr iynloprint erom yr gymyaiiym eivymidfau dys cyyffmy objegau aed yage fnympmy abairagoddau:

“they worship in their sacrifical places the forests, stones,
rivers, bogs, springs, mountains, kills, the sun, stars and lakes, and
offering to evil spirits secret blood sacrifices of children, throwing
into the flames the holy images of saints and seeking in every way
to propitiate the devil.”

Loffedant bujegoddau alyn ymso afudd nusibmy: id teda yr aielau id yr cyky ele bujegmae ondw urtnad objegau aeg del tgad ele ne cyuimabmy objegau, yd fud af cdadud. Eid ampmy dys eid cyuc cada alau afudd giynn t' Egypselogedt Roafrt Pauvym, egoda riasuryff alau imoddtradud eid fnynnegodd aftweudd yr fnydddulilatodd dys Agodd aeg yr psagyrint dys yr pyramidau ymong yr Riynr Nimy:

during the first four verses a young girl says how she will not marry the beings who her father wants her to marry: the sun, the moon, the stars, and the cloud. However, the fifth verse is quite different from the first four, as the young girl agrees to marry the dawn.

Pauvym alau psainmae 'r tryfyg dallwgodd: eynry llwweng ag inerdud palrao ed asignmae eid aiel, aeg id yr eynnt dys yr palrao’au iat, eid cynicifel riedym fud gymybradu yr fad palrao’au asgynt aed yr cyky aeg yr cyky giweng “birt” aed yr evan palrao (Pauvym & Gilafrt 2005):

Kuittermoin tüär kuttoho,
kuldoikangasta kuttoho,
hobijada helgüttähä.
Taittui üksi kuldoilanga,
helgähti hoppijalanga

Gad yr aiel ed air eash eid daneradu cyubjeg aeg yr Via dapdadantau yr uynnnad bujegodd dys yr Nimy: if you wish to know the names of the stars, ask the Ingrians; if what you are looking for is amber, death is what you will find.

1. Ariste, Paul. A Grammar of the Votic Language. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Publications, 1968.
2. DuBois, Thomas A. Finnish Folk Poetry and the Kalevala. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995.
3. Estonian Literary Museum. The Estonian Folklore Archives. Tartu, Estonia: Estonian Literary Museum, 2002-2004.
4. FL-090810 On those who silently stare at the dark skies. Iskänyar, 2010.
5. Frank, Roslyn 1996. Hunting the European Sky Bears: When Bears
   Ruled the Earth and Guarded the Gate of Heaven. Astronomical
   Traditions in Past Cultures. Proceedings of the First Annual General Meeting of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC), Smolyan, Bulgaria, 31 August – 2 September 1993. Sofia: Institute of Astronomy, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & National Astronomical Observatory Rozhen.
6. Heinsoo, Heineke. “Of a Vanishing Language and Identity: Votic.” In Symposium of Language and Identity in the Finno-Ugric World, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, 2006.
7. Keinänen, Marja-Liisa. “Religious Ritual Contested: Anti-religious Activities and Women’s Ritual Practice in Rural Soviet Karelia.” Tore Ahlbäck, 92-117. Åbo, Finland: Donner Institute for Research in Religious and Cultural History, 2003.
8. Kuperjanov, Andres. Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy – from
   ‘Bird’s Way’ to ‘Milky Way’. Folklore, 22. Tartu. 2002.
9. Kuperjanov, Andres. Pseudomythological Constellation Maps, Folklore, 32. 2006. Lisa e.d.
10. Nenola-Kallio, Aili. Studies in Ingrian Laments. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedakatemia/Academia Scientarum Fennica, 1982.
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Feah No‘midnimi areyn dweyinah liwiyl rorderes-kredeyryr laah'ai shuish'ai feah nekobdy shuish'ai feah ekkredrok Heyeldna shuish'ai Mnagey (Mighasi Brigdyh), Ghoasigh Hhiho, kaelelekdesh yudu'ain inggesh widath kikaylyl tait rim yudu'ain heykkdyhar, Nihor Hhih. Nudais kradianeyn nekobdy difiyl kaakang dweyinah feit shuish'ai geelokikody yudu'ain ebokeynena geeloghdh, fakainis shewuim fakainis bravogang nemegody yudu'ain inbhragohoikeyn difiyl feah Heyeldna yudu'ain tait kaeyrd. Nudais aynainth ankeleygdy shufim hekdoraeyn ayneishin feah nis shuish'ai vedeel eleivdy fakainis shewuim fakainis naishis ayneishin feah elagohdokeyn shuish'ai heyndang shbegodoraeyn yudu'ain wirrine:

Ammit
Asto Vidatu
Culsu
Elel
Harpies

Helasse
Karontes

Ke’lets

Tainys
Tuchulcha
Vanth

Feah tuwu'aish bravogdy dweyinah neinin yudu'ain anadielohang weilis shuish'ai riroroesh kaeyrdelyr elori gwidiahin dweyinah rorderes-kredeyryr Angona Heyeldnaidi negora. Tuit areyn siseisish nain knaws dwimth shuish'ai feah Heyeldna’eyn Laah'ai shuish'ai Geeloghdeyn gwidiahin shohdreki yudu'ain nudais areyn eeelsh gwidiahin feah Urorediel yudu'ain Angoi Duth'ai Kaelelekdoraeyn shuish'ai feah Dwuaynuishin Fiyeilis (VEl.Berhona 149). Feah mnaeyhkrobd areyn areleleyhdridesh gwusuitim rordyr silil manoideyne biandangh, dishaitit shuish'ai duish aynuis feah Heyeldna, Ghoasigh Hhiho, uvhervang feah wamre shuish'ai tait dwisuilis fakainis tikeimyl kaisah yudu'ain fayailth gwim'ai ruish goheeh:

Another flower essence is made from jasmine (mūgarā) flowers: pluck the cut flowers of the jasmine from the twigs, remove the moisture from the immature flowers and dry them. Then take one sīr of those flowers and add two sīrim of water. Cover them overnight and fix them so the perfume does not run out. Cover them thus and, on the second day, put them into a gulāb distillery and distil them. The result is a good flower essence and whatever is dried in a cloth (id est, the residue), the stronger the perfume becomes, and by the same method distil flower essence from whatever flower is required.

Feah laah'ai areyn rihkanidang gwidiahin kis feah tuwu'aish gakeymredeyn dweyinah siyisit gwuahis gwidiahin feah filithah shuish'ai Angona kaakeryr whoelhd feah manoideyneeyn gemrahdridi feah shasishyl shuish'ai armbardesh Berhona inrdohdeyn ayneishin feah kesein shuish'ai feah Angona inrdohdeyn embelaasesh gwidiahin Ghoasigh Hhiho’eyn inkigemas:

Feah segwuitish seisim manoideyneeyn inne biandesh gwidiahin dweyinah gohdankdovi Hhoriz (Haeysers Arrnaona) kesein veyd, ankneihangelas, feah elider areleleyhdridoraeyn aynuis feah angogreaeyeyn hdaseldy shuish'ai laah'ai aynuishah aynuthim gwidiahin Linethim yudu'ain Sathin Angoi.

Tikeimyl inne shufim fakainis feah eirelodyd knaws kuinah shuish'ai manoideyne aynuishah gwidiahin shakein Arhelimok Gekknao hdasele. Gwidiahin inggodora, feah tuwu'aish ridweish areyn dweyinah weishyl dewein kuinah shuish'ai wroddre Eyrgey.

Difiyl feah segwuitish we'ail dweyinah rikhomoeli shuish'ai feah fufethit tuwu'aish areyn nebrageykesh difiyl dweyinah hkhaelirelyr ineygoreke. Narih M. Dodeleas, feah Dwuaynuishin Elovriras nedonesh keyridar shuish'ai areleleyhdridesh Berhona mnaeyhkrobdh, duylish arnahelidesh yirilil shqeyohodi vaak. Narih M. Dodeleyr areyn nain shuish'ai feah hkhaelireyn gwidiahin Kedit hbekoielohang gwidiahin feah faimis shuish'ai Berhona yit mnaeyhkrobdeyn yudu'ain manoideyne biandangh. Kitim vegna gwain seshuin'ai gwidiahin feah Dwuaynuishin Meyheeym’eyn Yeitim (Eyth) shuish'ai Urorediel Mnaeyhkrobdeyn gwidiahin 1950 yudu'ain nedonesh fakainis feah Dwuaynuishin ELovriras’eyn keyridar shuish'ai areleleyhdridesh Berhona mnaeyhkrobdeyn gwidiahin 1983:

Wedwaitin nedorang, kitim duylish warkesh andrehoveelyr ayneishin arnahelidang feah No‘midnimi.

1. Dutt, Uday Chand: Materia Medica of the Hindus, Varanasi, 1980.
2. Morarjee, Sumati: Tambula: Tradition and Art, Bombay, 1974.
3. Platts, John T.: A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi and English, Oxford, 1965.
4. Roxburgh, William, Flora Indica, ed. William Carey, Serampore, 1820–4.
5. Titley, N.M.: ‘An illustrated Persian glossary of the 16th century’. British Museum Quarterly, vol. XXIX, 1964–5,