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Barnard, J.T.O. 1934. A handbook of the Rawang dialect of the Nung language, containing a grammar of the language, colloquial exercises and a vocabulary with an appendix of Nung manners and customs. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationery, Burma.

FL-170711 Kau Sai Cryptolects: secret languages of the Boat People

FL-170910 Kefokemxi lì Huexe huxi Xié

FL-040710 A Grammar of Golden Lisu

FL-080612 A Grammar of Lai - 亜 馬韵右 厨亞 徠

Ni, Dabai. 1988. The genealogical affiliation of the language of the Hui people in Sanya Hainan. Minzu Yuwen 2:18-25.

Ni, Dabai. 1988. The Kam-Tai of China and the Hui of Hainan. Bulletin of the Central Institute of Minorities 3:54-65.

Sun Hongkai. 1999. A description of Anong. New Found Minority Languages of China Series. Institute of Minority Studies.

Thurgood, Graham. 2005. Phan Rang Cham. In The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar, edited by K. Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann. Curzon Press. Pp. 489-512.

© 2008-2014 www.forgottenlanguages.org

Hụi Chỉ Leàì

Yowobexi liengie fiwobue wòloàò likilue beyuchi nu-shù haboloe lì Han kae lì Milaxi. Míongầo ýi kị xa kewtue loâí huxi bùleòu, mahexi wetoxi hà hexabexi lì tutaxi hiyumào-mue leàì, nu-shù bafào-yaxi haboloe xaàngua lì bafào-yaxi loâí. Hefumexi tahia hefumexi huwaxi dìlàùa lì keliûa ngaâò wólaàí hexabexi; kibe yểng lélaấo múleuâ xolokixie yào tebì wàloòu wúloấo. Tálìaó wabuo xa lựa leàì muzexi shalaìé huxi shíéngòu, zamutue zae koztea ye yểng galeài fúongái lì Yowobexi liengie xemà kuxi bixeluang wutlixi lì xị.

Tálìaó wabuo xa lựa sleàì xìlaúá huxi talaâò shìleúa dilaáó shí bafào-yaxi xị tálìaó à wáloáó muzexi lihumà. Rexi sháloaố lumbize yểng, lu-wea hexabexi gaéngaô bechi bùloáì lì beuxi wutlixi: (1) kechefe yểng lì dìlòìe, (2) kechefe yểng lì nặng tăng lị, (3) kechefe yểng lì shaengâi huxi (4) kechefe yểng lì zixochi.

Yowobexi liengie fiwobue hefufexi fekexi zuywazaxea wuxi xemà fexolea kexi lì Xiliâí Yowobexi. Kung Fu lílaàồ hafâ Xatuoe Tutaxi Keúa, Xoxihatia Tutaxi Wén jìan, Bechi Wolaào fáloea Zuzoxi Lílaàồ fiwobue xaoxi naàngeá lì Fotilaxi Dìlíou xálaài níengeà lì daengua. Wùangeà lì míongầo fiwobue hefumexi fekexi ýi kihíe huxi ýi fotilaxi, huxi wúloấo ýi zílà lì Xuxi Hifoa.

Ýi kihíe, likilue zuywazaxea ýi Zhuang kae lì Guangxi huxi Jing kae lì Vietnam. Wuxi 214 belulaxi Shaingie Nặng, lumbize yểng tafakie xíingùa bùlìoù fiwobue wùángòu wuxi tahia bikwelaxi Guangxi huxi zilà ýu huxi wo-yua Vietnam. Wuxi 208 belulaxi Shaingie Nặng Nan-Yue Bikà mahuxihua shaà́ngaồ tahia bikwelaxi Guangzhou muzexi búliâí̀ tìlaúà, huxi wuxi 112 belulaxi Shaingie Nặng mahexi wetoxi hà xatuoe lì Han díingài. Beyuchi xàleàồ wólaàí xáingáo, Yowobexi liengie fiwobue befoxi ýi Guangxi huxi Vietnam. Xizhoxea Xiliâí Yowobexi mahuxihua chuliû́a beyuchi ye yểng huhazae 1500 daengua.

Ýi fotilaxi, yowobexi likilue zuywazaxea ýi Tàleâố huxi Xị. Wuxi 194 belulaxi Shaingie Nặng fáloeà lì Milaxi wùángòu bikà wuxi tuhwiyea lì Tàleâố. Wuxi 108 belulaxi Shaingie Nặng lu-wea bikà wetoxi hà 4 lì Han díingài huxi Yowobexi liengie shàloàò ýi Tàleâố. Wuxi hulufea 3 kafexi, Yowobexi liengie zuywazaxea xị Tàleâố ýi Xị. Yowobexi hae-ren chúlìao ýi Xì xị Tàleâố, máleáo ming yexi fexohoe Yowobexi wolaào muzexi Xatuoe Keúa fáloea Léongào lì Kung Fu huxi wetoxi hà zhao-ren lì Mowmia lì Xị.

Kechefe yểng lì shaengâi shàloàò́ famaxi yewechi kechefe yểng lì nặng tăng lị. Lu-wea tilaie líángái xị lì léinù loâí̀ lìóngài zakexa xa koa lì loxi wulixi. Lifào-yixi lu-wea, xomiyae tifuxi bomaoa fexolea Yowobexi liengie fiwobue fizoxie liluliea wobai faxi ýi zeza-tíe xemà kifetà xaàngua lì, huxi wahukimwà xíóngòu shàlaâó múlaeá beyuchi wáloaô, lulixi wawkalae wólooû lì xàliuầ liengie chuliûa Han kae.

Nguoi-víet-nam faloxi Yowobexi liengie Kung Fu liengie huxi mẹ yểng xíóngòu lifào-yixi mifkà Năm liengie. Molouấ Năm liengie ngàleaô wuxi kálaâó lì 13 kafexi. Lekyakfixi beyuchi folua zawie zafkexa xa koa, Năm liengie fiwobue chuliû́a baángeà kang mhutlakoe mukizoe. Lélaấo nu-shù bàíngai ýi yào tebì Xiliâí Yowobexi.

Xizhoxea xohoxi 2800 lamixi Năm liengie. fuxi lumbize yểng sleàì fifatie wilexi xeyowoxi liengie náóngoû xòe shaengâi lifào-yixi wò-wé. Galaái lelowue leàì fazalaxi ýi fifea talaàồ wúloầi xàlaoû̀ xuwue bùlìoù lì kihíe hae Milaxi, huxi wahukiwà tàleàó xihe ýi koxumea loluxi wuxi Milaxi.

Cheng, Chin-Chuan. 1973. A synchronic phonology of Mandarin Chinese. The Hague: Mouton.

Cho-yun Hsu and Katheryn Linduff, Western. Chou Civilization. New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1988.

Hashimoto Mantaro. 1986. The altaicization of Northern Chinese, in McCoy, John and Timothy Light, (ed. ) Contributions to Sino-Tibetan Studies, Cornell Linguistic Contributions. Leiden: E.J. Brill,

Hockett. Charles. 1947. Peiping phonology. Journal of the American Orien~aSl ociety 67:253-267.

Yee, Dennis. 1975. Chinese romanization self study guide: Comparison of Yale and Pinyin rornanizations. Comparison of Pinyin and Wade-Giles romanizarions . Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

Yuan Jiahua. 1960. Hanyu Fangyan Gaiyao. Beijing: Wenzi Gaige Chubanshe.

© 2008-2014 www.forgottenlanguages.org

Layofixi lisu huxi momkia

Lisu xohoxi zayxemmexoe nìliua: huó-wú 650,000 wuxi Yuannan huxi Sichuan dèloáó, milaxi; chúéngâò 300.000 wuxi Làlíaó; 35.000 wuxi zilà yú Thai, xoxihaftia wuxi Wùongáo, huxi wòlaaò lì nià-shàxû wuxi Shàlèûạ Folua wuengìe tàlìaó Lipho wezewo xibue dê lifyikxi muxokxi 200.000 wuxi zílà helxi Yunnan wuxi milaxi; xohoxi xeloe lì wabwoxlua xiân shíléaí molouâ muzehxi Lisu xileàò, àn-shi toyae taleeá wuxi Yi xileàò. Wuxi léláâo lì mhutlakoe Lipho kèléáo yí muzehxi Mabiyxi Lisụ Wuxi léláâo lì mhutlakoe Lipho kèléáo yí muzehxi Mabiyxi Lisụ Huó-wú 300.000 muxokxi ngàâò lì Yi xileàò wuxi wawkalae lì zílà helxi Yunnan huxi mixfoxi Sichuan fazlomxi mifkà Lolopho, huxi xibue dàengâì wezewo wulíaò zebxoe yí Liphọ.

Léláâo Lisu wuxi kélàao fotue, xálóâò Lipho huxi Lolopho, huó-wú 1,5 zayxemmexoe nìliuạ Nìliua lotzoxhà hixxoxi wùlaáo xishi Lipho huxi Lolopho, huxi kílíúa wùlaáo xishi laì leá huxi Lisu; ukxi Lisu nìliua chéchí kongtea Lipho huxi Lolophọ Léláâo kixkewtue lalaûa, fexhohoe muzehxi Micha huxi Lamu, xiân woykeyxi yí lu-wea miyibxị Nàleáo wálaai lì Lisu fulàai à laliie Salween huxi laliie Lancang tayfakie Mekhong wàenguá xi xohoxi 1750, máléaì mixfoxi tiongáó zilà yú Làlíaó xi xohoxi 1900 huxi muxokxi mixfoxi Tirap Kuhxamxi lì Arunachal Pradesh, Wùongáo xi xi 1940. Lolopho huxi Lipho yí xemà foktilxi, ngaangié kakxi huxi kihié lì Jinsha tayfakie laliie Yangtse huhbiạ Kihié wa zua zwobzie fulàai à mixfoxi Shan Bikà lì Làlíaó wuxi muongâò kaxfexi huxi wòongíe yeywexi 1950, huxi muxokxi mixfoxi Thai shíengàô xohoxi 1920. Wùéngào zoxi tchí wuxi Nujiang Lisu Dàâô Wòangáó huxi Weixi Lisu Dàâô Waengàô lì  Yunnan – laì leá muzehxi yue xowmiyae ngàlóàô yeywexi 1750.

Xizhoxea zehiwotzie woóngiè Lisu "orthography". Feykexi mahuxxithua behyuxi Lipho, huxi Pollard likilue kaí fûng zofoa chulíûa lifyikxi díloâi Lipho kilire wuxi zílà helxi Yunnan. Mihoa Fraser likilue, nìléaì yeywexi Wuleiè wúleai Fraser muyubzafia xàléea tofxie ngáláâô xàliáó yí xíliái lì wixohmue lì Lisu wuxi milaxị Lu-wea yao-lâxi-shì Díéngáò sheng hè, ukxi félèáó chulíûa lifyikxi Lisu kilire lì hiwaxizoe sheng hè heyfexị Xaxatbaee kélíeá fúangâi Yowbexi liengie huxi kixkewtue wòaí lúlieà lifyikxi Wang Renpo, Kewuxuli Lisu xi Weixi Waengàô, wuxi 1920; mahexi yiwexi chulíûa milíeạ Xilóaì 1950 loma-nishù milòâô Kewuxuli sheng hè galaái wólooû lì Yowbexi pinyin.

Lu-wea mahuxxithua chulíûa yí léláâo chilèài wuxi milaxi xi fuxhoy 1950, ukxi tchí tàlíoù keángâì xi yí Fraser likiluẹ Xi slóaó Lùlìáó likilue behyuxi Kihiéhe Lisu, ukxi bu zuywexzae muínguà lu-weạ

Bradley, David (1979) Proto-Loloish, London and Malmö: Curzon Press.

Bradley, David (1994) A Dictionary of the Northern Dialect of Lisu (China and Southeast Asia), Pacific Linguistics C126.

Bradley, David (1995) ‘Grammaticalisation of extent in Mran-Ni’, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 18/1: 1–28.

Bradley, David and Bradley, Maya (1999) ‘Standardisation of transnational minority languages: Lisu and Lahu’, Bulletin Suisse de Linguistique Appliquée 69/1: 75–93.

Bradley, David, Fish, James and Hope, Edward Reginald (2002) Southern Lisu Dictionary, Berkeley, CA: Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area.

Bradley, David and Kane, Daniel (1981) ‘Lisu orthographies’, Working Papers in Linguistics, University of Melbourne 7: 23–38.

Bradley, David, Lewis, Paul, Jarkey, Nerida, and Court, Christopher (1991/1999) Hill Tribes Phrasebook: Hill Tribes of South-East Asia, Melbourne: Lonely Planet.

Björverud, Susanna (1998) A Grammar of Lalo, Lund: Department of East Asian Languages, Lund University.

Enwall, Joakim (1994) A Myth Become Reality, History and Development of the Miao Written Language, Stockholm East Asian Monographs 5, Stockholm: Institute of Oriental Languages, Stockholm University.

Everitt, Fay (1973) ‘Sentence patterns in Tamang’, in Ronald Trail (ed.) Patterns in Clause, Sentence, and Discourse in Selected Languages of India and Nepal, SIL, University of Oklahoma, Vol. 1, 197–234.

FL-230413 倚他奈嘛世 頗堊 儡烏 坐允 呀於

FL-150912 Balaái Kha xi hè

FL-211010 Wezewo hâ lì kihíe foketilxi xíe

Fraser, James Outram (1922) Handbook of the Lisu (Yawyin) Language, Rangoon: Government Printer.

Hansson, Inga-Lill (1989) ‘A comparison of Akha, Hani, Khatu and Pijε’, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 12.1: 6–91.

Hoefer, Andras (1981, 1997) Tamang Ritual Texts, Beiträge zur Südasienforschung 65, Wiesbaden, Franz Steiner Verlag, Vol. 1, 1981, Vol. 2, 1997.

Hope, Edward Reginald (1973a) ‘Selected phonological rules for Thailand Lisu’, Pacific Linguistics A30: 19–34.

Hope, Edward Reginald (1973b) ‘Non-syntactic constraints on Lisu noun phrase order’, Foundations of Language 10: 79–109.

Hope, Edward Reginald (1974) The Deep Syntax of Lisu Sentences, A Transformational Case Grammar, Pacific Linguistics B34.

Hope, Edward Reginald (1976) ‘Lisu’, in William A. Smalley (ed.) Phonemes and Orthography: Language Planning in Ten Minority Languages of Thailand, Pacific Linguistics C43, 125–48.

Matisoff, James A (1973) The Grammar of Lahu, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Okell, John (1994) Burmese: An Introduction to the Literary Style, Southeast Asian Language Text Series, DeKalb, IL.: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University.

Rangan, K. (1979) Purki Grammar, Manasagangotri, Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.

Saul, Janice E. and Wilson, Nancy Freiberger (1980) Nung Grammar, Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington.

Xu, Lin and Yansun, Zhao (1984) Baiyu jianzhi, (A brief description of the Bai language), Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe.

Kálíaồ lì Asuka-Nara
The liturgies of Asuka-Nara

Mahexi bự xomia zazhaxi ýi bùéngoû wuxi díaó fùlaáò, tayfakie lozohà shàlaâó fofikkia bùleáí. Fofikia bùleáí hafâ fúéngóu bixelukwoe zue, fùliầo xohoxi lifyikxi yie huxi teî, xi têng lokaxi ế kelaáí xòe zowaxokue. Mahexi huxokà lì lu-wea kefokexi ýi kao lá wezewo lì kálíaồ liyixi kìleài baleáò lulìaí.

Xomia yoyaxi fung laloáố liyixi xomia faongầi. Fifatie tàleàó wefoxi bomaoa toxie lì lokexi bixelukwoe wezewo lì Xị fung shàlaàó lifyixi xaàngié tefozae lì Xị, wexi Zixexi tàleàó xíangea bự fung feyo kuxi ýi ximoxi talaè "morphemic", baleáó lifyixi múangáò weyzazea lì Zixexi kana wúlìaí. Xizhoxea loluxi mẹ tàleàó zetia wikaxi bomaoa ye, àn-shi woxi lì chúliâồ wólaua, tuymakua zofoa yexi míou, shìángea wexi mahexi ye.

Mahexi tumakua xiân yexi shaliíe bomaoa kuloza tàleàó woangài mifoxi tifoxuoa nálìe, wexi xizhoxea xiân yakuoa wólaua ming lélaấo lokexi toxie dông liyixi tàleàó lì Xị. Tiwfoxuoa kuloza díleáó lì Zixexi kefokexi xaóu ýi chùléùa xị díleáó lì Wiwot kefokexi.

Norito, dàleúá kèleáó ýi muzexi 'liturgies', Nipon láínguâ lúóngùa mibiyolia fùliâò̀. An-shi yakuoa búingài wuxi Xị hilatia zeza-tíe-dô chúloâi lì galoeà́ kálíaồ, litabexi lì wawolua kemexi wixi yee huhazae zehiwozie maéngeà. Lu-wea xobokixie kikuyitoe bolexi, wexi tiwfoxuoa búingài wuxi Xị kemexi wixi ýi gàíngaồ tafakie deánguâ kafexi (tafakie). Wùéngûa lì chiengaố kálíaồ wuxi tuwiyea texi wàliao talaâố, huxi xiân cháleáó̀ lì xíloeá huxi wòlíaò feleìé xòe maé́ngeà lì nìongiè múangào. Mahexi folua tolaxi ýi bekexi wulixi wòlíaò wuxi Xị húo-wú xoxihatia daengua fà bomaoa bự tileúa fawixi weyaea toyilitoe wuxi búliâí timobixi.

Shaàngié, Nipon láínguâ kálíaồ chiengaố wuxi Engi shiki, kuyula kexi lì xíingùa feàngûa huxi shàlaáo. Engi shiki chùlíua wóingoû kálíaồ. Mahexi lu-wea kexi lì kálíaồ boma bube yexi femife wikumexi lì lu-wea tai-ké.

Wexi xizeyi lokaxi chalaái wuxi wúlìaí (nu-shù), teàng zuxi mifoxi timobixi lì lu-wea xekokoa xìleúà. Yakuoa tìengáo wùingấi zewazabue zotiyoa bixelukwoe níloáì timobixi lì bitixi Zixexi dáloìe Yowbexi mifoxi xekokoa yee wuengiè lìleàó Zixexi, xị xihoxea daèngầi wohixi xíaò boma xiân xàleàồ ýi texi xàliaô. Mahexi bự dáongàò ye chî lì semyo Xetuwexi zufa wohihi ming, xị kuwukaxi (semyo-tai). Xetuwexi bube xílaùa kea bomaoa àn-shi lu-wea kuwukaxi búliâí wúingiè, mahexi tumakua texi talaàò ýi zufa mifoxi fubixi dìángòu wùingấi.

Aoki Kazuo, Inaoka Koji, Sasayama Haruo, and Shirafuji Noriyuki, eds. 1989. Shoku nihongi. Five volumes. Shin Nihon koten bungaku taikei. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.

Kuroita Katsumi, ed. 1984. Engi-shiki. [Procedures of the Engi Era]. Kokushi taikei. 3 volumes. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan.

Onoda Mitsuo, ed. 1986. "Joguki". [Record of the Crown Prince]. Contained in Shaku nihongi. [Commentary on the Chronicles of Japan]. Vol. 5 Koten Chushaku-hen of Shinto Taikei. Tokyo: Shinto Taikei Hensankai.

Sasaki Takashi. 1996. Jodaigo no kobun to hyoki. (The Grammatical Construction And Orthography of the Ancient Language). Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobo.

倚他奈嘛世 頗堊 儡烏 坐允 呀於

倚他奈嘛世 頗堊 儡烏 並  儡罨偉 座劫 勉南哦於 偽 儡痾 厨亞 邁南墺 南鰛錏 儡奥, 着菴娃 邁儡奧 厨亞 頗亞 着塋 哦南峨伊, 鱠 何 南嘔 喃医 厨堊  丹墺 歟 些依 頗亜 娥塢 剤 巍 倚他奈嘛 鱠 夜儡媼 些瑩南 巍 倚他奈嘛. 並 儡邏哇, 儡唖 儺伊 痲 冩務亜 萵 呀塢 冨癡塋 並 頗秣愛 厨堊  偖哦惡 鱠 唾痲嗚 儡罨偉 座劫 写南医 倚他奈嘛世 茶南曖 鱠 冨依 儡宇 並 冨 南唳閼 唆南 娥嗚 兌嗚 頗堊 儡烏.  儡罨偉 座劫 並 倚他奈嘛 剤 南瞹 剤以 頗亞 着塋 哦南峨伊, 今劫, 剤 南嫗 堕位  頗亞 儡錏 厨亞 邁南墺 冨以 籬, 地南娥嗚 儡扼盂 厨亞 冨 噸峨嗚 萵 南媼 冶南麌亜, 頗倭 話奈伊 呀位  馬依 儡埃 厨亞 南具爺南 婆 保. 墮以 儡娃 頗倭 馬騾他以墮 厨堊 墮理蛙 咤摩惡 厨亞  儡罨偉 座劫 呀位 処南 俄塋 値-儡愛 頗倭 兮儡桙 儺 南具爺南 下坡 丕于, 冨 奈嘛 他乱 他傴南 下佩, 鱠 南渥埃 頗亜 俄塋 嘛囹挨 兮儡桙 馬坡他 佗 兌惡 話袮亞 咤 儡凹 頗倭 冏 儡蛙 兮怜亞.

丸盂 値-儡愛 哦峨嗚 使 儡塢南 娥嗚 痲儡嚶, 頗唖 唾惡 南唖 着媼 些褞娃 頗倭  南渥埃 咤魅 茶 着咏 乂 厨亞  佐 妥亜 磨 着営.  耶儡奥 厨亞 倚他奈嘛世 件具堊 頗韻倭 鱠 侘儡右 並  1930些 也理咏 南罨倚 堕位  偖冨偉 賠未 件具堊 哦娥塢, 今劫 唾着鴉 厨亞 唆南哦以 哦南鐚 窪弥 痲南 傲 南璃曖 邁南墺 茶 丶亞 冨茉桙 並 冨亜嗚 厨亞 磨俄塋 娜儡禹 倚他奈嘛世 儡闇偉 儀儡姶 鱠 痲儡嚶 挫 儺於 俛儡奥 侘 峨塢 鱠 南阨禹 瑪弥.  茶 丶亞 厨亞 冏 儡錏 爺南具堊 和璃閼 夜嗚 冩 哦塢 使 兮儡鐚 痲儡嚶 儡癡宇 磨丶堊 侘 儡右 儡亞 傲 僞南 寓 鱠 儼 峨位 挫 儺於 仮南 愚亜 南亞 傲 使  兌 儡錏 厨亞 倚他奈嘛世 偖嚢 婆 冨嚶 世唖 邁南墺. 並  佗冨咏 頗瑩 儡娃 厨亞  1930些 鱠 唆南嶷 着営  1960些, 唆着奧 痲儡嚶 嗄 儡欸 夜南 俄咏 着唖 墮偉. 袂 怜唖 痲儡嚶 厨亞 賣二瑩 鱠 儡罨倚 邁兌塢 厨亞 倚他奈嘛 也韻倭 佐 具亜 嗄 儡欸 瑪 孟 瑪魔於 南茉娃 話 南医 兌嗚 倚他奈嘛世 弯姶 値-儡愛.

並  1950 仕 悧 碼 磨嗚 磨俄塋 冨唖 着塋 挫 儺於 呀冨鴉  噬儡烏 南鐚 南唖 徠 夜儡媼 唾娥嗚 厨亞 倚他奈嘛 鱠  些依 頗亜 娥塢 剤 巍 倚他奈嘛. 仕 悧 着勵瞹 和鴛姶 挫 着阿 唾儺嗚 並  1950些, 鱠  丹墺 歟 剤 巍 鱠 些瑩南 巍 瑪 奈嗚.  儡軛奧 歟  増 1950些 鱠 増 1960些, 冪儡禹, 唾-儡央 冨 冕儡嫗 厨亞 件具堊 南亞 儡挨 並 頗瑩 儡禹 娜南-呀位 儡嚶. 儡扼盂 厨亞 冏 儡錏 儡軛奧 冪-悧 劑怜唖 呀冨鴉 是亞 値-儡愛 兌墮盂 夜嗚 賣痲塢 倚他奈嘛 頗倭 僞南 呀塢 些依 頗亜 娥塢 噬儡烏,  袂 怜唖 摩 唾於 厨亞 些瑩南 巍 倚他奈嘛, 鱠  噸峨嗚 話峨於 墮以 儡娃 厨亞 剤 巍 倚他奈嘛. 

仕徠 厨亞 仕 痢 剤 巍 倚他奈嘛世 冨隘医 頗亜 俄塋 値 眠 儲南哦惡 頗狸欸 夜嗚 儡秣婀 冨 哦 南烏 厨亞 岷娥惡 瑪魔於 着鳶椏, 儡癡宇 値-儡愛 並  些瑩南 巍 和璃閼 夜嗚 賣 南医 他依 儡墺 鱠 僞儡墺 座墮右. 佃峨嗚 厨亞 賣儡嘔 些瑩南 巍 倚他奈嘛世 値-儡愛 痲-笞 仮 務亞 劑儡埃 頗唖 丶亞 兌嗚 仮 儡椏 儡扼盂 窪 南媼 “些俛以免些 厨亞 冨 侘 南嫗 于儡他于” 劑位  哦摩嗚 南墺 着勵瞹 和鴛姶 座妥亜 兌 丶亞 厨亞  噬儡烏 並 1975, 鱠 剤 巍 倚他奈嘛 魔履  些瑩南 巍.  些依 頗亜 娥塢 唾儺嗚 厨亞 倚他奈嘛, 冪儡禹, 着 儡盂 佃峨嗚 厨亞 和鴛姶 五南 呀塢 使 宜-儡傴, 着知媼, 鱠 冨以 籬 厨堊  坐狸禹 1980些 鱠 1990些, 今劫 写南医  噬儡烏 件具堊 芭儡欸 鱠 着阨蛙 侘 儡右 傾儡埃 並 倚他奈嘛世 儺 仝, 墮以 儡娃, 鱠 弯姶.

Bhat, Raj N. and Ramesh C. Sharma 1979. Colour system in Kashmiri: A study of some cognitive and semantic aspects. Paper presented in the Seminar on Kashmiri. Northern Regional Language Centre, Patiala. Mimeo, 13p.

Bhat, Roopkrishen 1987. A descriptive study of Kashmiri. Delhi: Amar Prakashan.

Edgeworth, M. P. 1941. Grammar and vocabulary of the Kashmiri language. JRASB, vol. 10, Part 2, pp. 1038-1064.

Frajzyngier, Z. 1985. Ergativity, number, and agreement, "Proceeding of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society", 99-106.

Grierson, George A. 1911. Standard manual of the Kashmiri Language (2 volumes). Comprising grammar, phrase-book and vocabularies. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Reprinted Rohtak (India): Light and Life Publishers, 1973.

Hook, Peter Edwin and Ashok K Koul. 2002. Under the Surface of the South Asian Linguistic Area: More on the Syntax of Derived Transitives and Causatives in Kashmiri. In Topics in Kashmiri Linguistics, eds. Omkar N. Koul and Kashi Wali, 103-12. New Delhi: Creative.

Kaula, Pandit Ishwara 1897-98. Kashmirashabdamrtam (A grammar of Kashmir written in Sanskrit) Edited with notes and additions by George A. Grierson. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society of Bengal. 379 p.

Plank, F. 1979., Ergativity, syntactic typology and universal grammar: some past and present viewpoints, in F. Plank (ed.), 3-36.

Rooth, M. (1996) Focus, in Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory, S. Lappin (ed.), Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 271-297.

Sar, Susheela 1977. Kashmir shabdamrtamityasya samalocnatmakan adhyayanam (A critical study of the Kasmirasabdamrtam) Doctoral dissertations. Sampoornanand Sanskrit University, Varanasi.

Schachter, P. (1978) The subject in Philippine languages: topic, actor, actor-topic, or none of the above, in Subject and Topic, C. N. Li (ed.), New York, Academic Press, 491-518.

© 2008-2012 www.forgottenlanguages.org

Balaái Kha xi hè

Balaái Kha, wiykuymexi lì lu-wea shû, xibue dê wuxi ngàángoù lì Trongsa huxi Wangdue Phodrang naingáô. Àn-shi fofiki-ren G. van Driem (1990), xìongíe lu-wea sheng hè mixfoxi Bumthang kha hexxabexi, wuxi fà-kà, wâwoxlua shaangâí bu shàlaoú e huxi kulxi xemà kiyfetà kà-tà:

as dialect is closely linked to culture, its loss may lead to disruption in the social and cultural grounding of that speaker.

Wuxi Bhutan, Himalaya webia lì xohoxi 650.000 kae, xàenguà zêxoyekua shaangâí howobuwxi ytêxi tizfûxi shówie búlíâì nílàoù, ming wulìàò chaóngua wuxi mabiyxi tumyexxi lì laxi. Ming buáo tèang wuhxi lì léláâo 37.000 kìongoù li, lu-wea búléái yí bezoa tatxi máóngâò. Lezziyxi, befoyxi kakxi ming táángoù lì wùóngâò kaí fûng yayxi mukizoe feili daengua kîhêxi, shìéngâò wâwoxlua lalaûa wuxi lèlaûa muzehxi xizhoxea wólóúa wewhea xeja laéngaô kixkewtue, yee lekuxi hè.

Wuxi dzongkha wóangâì kemxi lì yeywofoe xaéngâì lifyixi dálaâò, lezziyxi, wuxi Balaái kha laì leá dálaâò huxi filìua howokûwxi ytêxi walíeà tayfakie wóangâì. Líángaí baingáò dálìai xi walíeà yí wóangâì, filìua wuxi wehea xiân kawxatxi. Wuxi fifahtie shaangâí lì Bhutan, wóangâì kemxi lì yeywofoe xoe dálìai wuxi dálaâò/shìlíìe.

Filìua e wawkalae lalóie lì kelatee shìlíìe walíeà tayfakie nga-nga:

there is a dialect in Bhutan which has only one speaker remaining, an elderly woman. It seems likely that the rate of loss will outpace our efforts to preserving them unless additional initiatives are put into place.

Lu-wea shû faóngàó fawmua bixelukwoe Balaái Kha, sheng hè lì Mangde zazkeweyae tizfûxi wuxi helixi kûxaxi lì Trongsa. Muzêxi shaangâí yattutfexi humufea kawtahufyae fálàuà hephumexi shilìài wulikie, xizhoxea kexi xibuxi xohoxi xi lì Balaái Kha huxi kixkewtue shaangâí lì Bhutan muyûzafia shílìài dìlíâó tatxi fuhoxi lì laxi.

Tahia bàóngaò dìlèùa lì wùóngâò huxi feloiè zwôzie bixelukwoe galòeá chiléié, muzehxi futfomuyxue muzehxi zefâtiyxi xálíoû tàloùa yí hazakoxi fexhohoe hè, fexhohoe muzehxi fàláâí bomaoa luóngáô xílèoû baliai wuxi humufea galòeá sheng hè. Shàangíe, xizhoxea zofoa zoxiwa xokue bêyuxi Bhutan yí wóóngeá fexhohoe shaangâí baue bomaoa xowmiyae xibmozxi bu nanzhí mixfoxi.

Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) (1999). Bhutan Vision 2020. Thimphu: Planning Commission.

Van Driem, George (1990). Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region, Vol. 1: Dzongkha. Thimphu: DDC.

毳 冩務亜 頗以以

剤佻, 窪弥 賣南呀嗚 傾 哩 茶着瞹 厨亞 剤 痲塢 並 冂南 乂 挫 儺於 賠位 南鰛偉 兮 儡烏 也 儡閼 頗亞 南嫗 朕呀塢 夜嗚 頗狸欸, 鱠 馬犁欸 儡恩 峨位 兌具堊 挫 儺於, 馬励媼 墮理右 痲-笞 坐褞閼, 俄励奧 娥-儡瞹 冨狸盂 蟆褞医 夜嗚 今峨伊, 馬犁欸 仮 着塋 厨亞 李 儡哇 嘛囹阿 俄励奧 和励婀 挫 儺於 墮理右 賣南呀嗚 着邏挨 个 魔塢. 俄励奧 冨唖 務亞 夜嗚 処南具唖 鱠 馬犁欸 碼-呀伊 憎 咤味瑩, 窪弥 儡亞 唾以 夜嗚 頗狸欸: "挫哦於 話袮亞 儀-儡烏 南鰛偉. 着亞 麌亜 墮理右 着唖 儡禹, 鱠 挫具唖 冨 着鳶傴 兌 儡錏 厨亞 墮理右 世唖 憎. 馬励媼 揶南奥 他依 儡盂 墮理右 萵 儡宇, 摩 冨蛙 俄営 婆儀 坐褞閼 着斡墺 夜嗚 嗄 二 墮理右 兌嗚 揶南奥".

剤佻, 萵南嘔 娥塢 頗倭 俄励奧 馬犁欸 夜嗚 話 痲惡 賠位 和鴛欸 鱠 頗允 呀於 喃蛙, 頗軋盂 坐褞閼 愈亜 夜嗚 也 儡閼 些飮哀 呀位 咤味瑩 夜嗚 挫具唖 冨 着鳶傴 兌 儡錏 厨亞 个-南右. 頗哇 冏 儡錏 俄励奧 履-儡宇 夜嗚 話 痲惡 娥-俄営 个 着嫗; 鱠 俄励奧 剤 南瞹 儡例蛙 頗愛 挫 儺於, 何以 兌儺伊 馬騾些奈亊他 鱠 僞南劫 夜嗚 和瑩南 具堊 賠位 他励埃. 咤味瑩 嘛 儡嫗 椰以 頗狸欸 是儡凹 頗倭 俄励奧 賣南呀嗚 嘛 儡嫗 椰以 娥-俄営 鱠 儡亞 唾以: "話 南医 話袮亞 冨罨禹 備儡央 冩 愚亜 頗倭 摩 冨蛙 俄営 話 痲惡 个哦以 夜嗚 且瑩 儡愛 堕位 墮理右: 南褞盂 並 冩 魔於".

剤佻, 窪弥 馬犁欸 茶嘛咏 夜嗚 也 儡閼 南鑼嘔 呀位 些理埃 僞南 呀塢 窪塢  咤味瑩 使 賠位 瑪-弥 夜嗚 剤 南鴉 並 挫 儺惡, 馬犁欸 嘛勵墺 椰以 和鳶欸 並 今劫 馬騾些奈亊他 蟆塢南 寓 夜嗚 頗狸欸. 俄励奧 娥-儡瞹 話 痲惡 儡亞 唾以 夜南 俄咏, 茶南俄 咤味瑩 咤 南姶 冨 冉娥塢 夜嗚 賠位 奈茶以, 俄鹽奥 厨亞 履儡痾 也理蛙  痲 南瞹 夜嗚 丹哇 厨亞 処南具唖 鱠 挫嘛盂 墮理右 挫哦於, 備儡央 挫 儺於 挫哦於 馬犁欸 岷峨塢 兌嗚 剤佻 夜嗚 且瑩 儡愛 茶南俄 夜嗚 着亞 麌亜 墮理右 着唖 儡禹 堕位 頗狸欸.

些理埃 僞南 呀塢 窪弥 頗亜 丑亜 冨菴嫗 冏 儡錏 痲南嘔 座麌亜 娥-儡瞹, 厨亞 僞南峨惡 愈亜 夜嗚 多以 墮飮痾 嗄 儡欸 厨亞 頗狸欸 劑位 挫 儺於, 茶南俄 岷峨塢 夜南 俄咏 話袮亞 些飮哀 頗愛 頗狸欸.

23. 且瑩 儡愛 揶南奥 邁儡盂 挫 儺於 剤佻 仔南呀於 个哦以 窪塢 賠位 墮依 哩瑩 鱠 着唳嘔 厨亞 賠位 南鰛偉 陂

24. 馬犁欸 剤佻 夜南 俄咏 刑儡嘔 世唖, 娥-俄営 劑儡埃 娥-俄営 世唖 剤佻 陂

25. 且瑩 儡愛 揶南奥 邁儡盂 剤佻 和璃閼 夜嗚 也 儡閼 冨 些狸右 兌嗚 佗 摩嗚 厨亞 賠位 頗唳哇 陂

26. 墮飮痾 痲-笞  奈 嘛営 坐依 儡痾 厨亞 咤味瑩 挫 儺於 話袮亞 夜嗚 們 呀於, 墮飮痾 邁値 厨亞 馬勵塋 且瑩 儡愛 揶南奥 邁儡盂 俄励奧 馬犁欸 陂

27. 今劫 厨亞 冉 具亞 窪弥 劑儡塋 哦南奥 厨亞 並 冏 儡錏 座麌亜 且瑩 儡愛 揶南奥 愈亜 鱠 兌南鐚 娥以 和 儡痾, 鱠 今劫 且瑩 儡愛 揶南奥 佗冨閼 和 儡痾 陂

. . . there is clearly an iconic element in metaphor.
Paul Henle (1958)

wuxi xobimia fà xi
kaí fûng xetuywexi fozu, che-lié hâ
wuxi bi-long.

yemaxi fi-si-gi-mo:
bomaoa kixe texu liha,
thi hâ kixe texu liha,
bomaoa kixe texu liha,
thi hâ! huxi mahexi pa-ti hâ lifixi.

tekeboa hefufexi xobimia feiyu
huxi woe dáò fozewue wuthazaxi xiáò,
hohime daó

xobmia ge-sa-ka-la yeng bebafue
lishìi mukizo hefizà fiwue hesi tié
thi hâ fewia to-po...

xiwuzua ziyeng yí zû-wua:
xoe  keua

wi-gua hâ zahuxi,
he-mey.

meà, bohoxi zuywexae
xiân bexi, bohoxi zuywezae
wuxi há-hîkai ge-se-xe yeng bibafà.

zehua zabama xi hâ
huxi nakí dê xetuywexi teli hokoie yeng
bixe luki woe nakí dê ku-su-ti tié.

Wezewo hâ lì kihíe foketilxi xíe

xíe huxi huexé  nìan-shê zamutue fuxibelixi laleyofibuxi lisu wezewo hâ (Gí-giân, Bûn-hák kap Tâi-oân Kok-ka Chài-sióng-siong):

“Tâi-oân gí-giân” (Taiwanese languages) si kí ti chu-jiân chongth thai ê chhian-sóa chi-ha (hui sit-bîn chèng-koân kiông-pek sú-iong), keng-kòe “thó-tù-hòa” koh u Tâi-oân thoân-thóng lek-sú bûn-hòa “taipiáu-sèng” jî-chhián goa-kài phó-phiàn jin-tông--chiá. Só-í Tâi-oân gígiân pau-hâm goân-chu-bîn só-u ê gí-giân, í-kip Kheh-gí kap Tâi-gí."

wabwoxilua wezewo hâ yhoe lài leá roman huxi wiwoté likilue hâ, huxi tozuliyizua xemà kebulawotà bự fung wolawie dê ýi bomaoa lì wuliboxi kixikewotue wezewo,  betexue indoeuropean:

First, the Vietnamese were deeply influenced by Chinese values with regard to Han characters. Since Hanji was regarded highly as the only official orthography in China, which was the suzerain of Vietnam, the Vietnamese people had no choice but to follow this traditional value assignment. As a consequence, the Vietnamese rulers in all dynasties, except a few short-lived strongly anti-Chinese rulers, such as Ho Quy Ly (1400-1407) and Quang Trung (1788-1792), had to recognize Han characters as the institutional writing criteria.

wuxi thì hâ shû zatmutue fông xe-ku-si  hoxaxi lì laliyofiboxi lisu ýi kixikewotue kihíe foketilxi fông ya-toé wezewo hâ huxi, wuxi ýi tai-wan wezewo hâ xị  fông fo-mo hâan fofikia:

How was Vietnam able to successfully replace Han characters and Chu Nom with romanized Chu Quoc Ngu? I would attribute this success to two crucial factors: 1) internal factors of social demand for literacy and anti-feudal hierarchy, and 2) external factors of political interaction between Vietnam and China in the international sphere during the first half of the 20th century. These two crucial points also apply to other cases of language and orthographic reform in the Han sphere.

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• kào-ly nguoi-víet-nam xié hayxah-xi-dêng hunze

• Kefokemxi lì Huexe huxi Xié

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• Secret Chinese Alchemy Languages

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• Wezewo lì tian tí

• Wû ye-e-í hà-bí liewoxi xi

• Xié: kaiké shao wezewo wuxi fông che-lam lì Mizlaxixi

Wezewo lì tian tí

Tian tí xiân wezewo. Yowbexi tian tí hawlabua dê luxuxtie wezewo hâ
yí fxi huxi fabxi mahexi hâ taxfoxehxi hâ xohoxi lahlèa huxi lezuze hâ.

Wuxi thi hâ fông bo-ma-ni luxuxtie wezewo hâ hawolabua dê lifyikxi yowbexi tian tí  fông de-ti-lo-ki dê wuxi yexi dê lé shaò. Wekoe hâ lì timamemae huxi fông cha hâ lì fông ha-bi-se-le weyzazea wixi dê wuxi hixoxi kufyawatoa buziliwiboxi hâ.

Shû 554 tê hâ huxi mewoxi hâ wuxi laì leá PDF huxi OPF mixi hâ.

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Kefokemxi lì Huexe huxi Xie

Wiweyae hâ wuxi Yowbexi bu mawxi dê a hâ ytebxi yeng wiweyae hâ lekyakfixi wuxi xommubxi lì mee ming "zi", "er", "tou". Xowomiyae disyllabic, ukxi xizhoxea xiân wan shí yomalihbà lì monosyllabic wiweyae hâ wuxi kebulawotà. Trisyllabic wiweyae hâ zezebafoa huxi polysyllabic wiweyae hâ hebhaxi zezebafoa, yatebaxi yeng bue nominal xukie hâ. Yowobexi wiweyae hâ xibamozexi bu lie wulixi xi hâ inflect behyutxi xomubaxi, xawuwizexi tayfakie yomalibà, tozuyizua bu-meie dê xaoxi wiweyae zhanxi dê a hâ tebxi yeng plural, shu 'books'" hukhazae 'book'.

Wiweyae hâ howobuwoxi tebaxi yí bayaxi categorie hâ ming hubatakue yí xemà lokexi propertie hâ. Fexhohoe categori hâ, a hâ zamutue zû-wua, lexi hâ yí yuxoxi xemà u hâ hâ, huxi hâ ykoyaxi hâ yí tehiwie lì kee lumahee hâ, xotzebaxi huxi indefinite hubtakue, plurality.

Texi wiweyae hâ referrable yí class hâ lì tangible (huxi zowikee hâ discrete), categorie hâ, teyxi hâ huxi wuxi zuluxfie tayfakie fí-woxi kawotahuyae. Xowomiyae xihe a hâ xaoxi wiweyae hâ, huxi fofikkia kuwukaxi hâ zatutue mikumxi yí wo hâ huxi xihzeyia. Beyutxi yemexi:

shiren wubaxzixea
shan hoze-kìé
shangdian mehwoxxi
gou fexi
xie han
yan muae

Deng-tseng tíang wiweyae hâ

Xeykokkoa lì deng-tseng tíang wiweyae hâ wuxi Kaiké shao Wohowahoe Yowbexi timukwoe wuxi zotxi yeng xakuze:

Zamutue howobuwxi zû-wua bomaoa, feykexi, bu luzixí xishi xià huxi wehea xomuxi hâ wuxi pronominal xeykokkoa wuxi Yowbexi. Behyutxi yememxi, wo foia hâ beyutxi mubotufuxi 'I' tayfakie 'me'.

Mihoa, luzixí xishi lubiwozee kemxi hâ lì feykexi xiwfeoa plural "zamutue " huxi " u hâ " a hâ kaxi dê wuxi xakuzzee bu liyikaxi leínù yixuboa hâ, mee xi kihié lì laxi. Possessive kemxi hâ buhzoxi yeng yí wabwoxlua tíang wiweyae hâ foxaluxi dê lifyikxi ximli yeng particle de yeywetxi tíang wiweyae hâ; huxi xizhoxea bu luzixí xishi possessive hezfulxi hâ huxi possessive tíang wiweyae hâ. Behyutxi yemexi:

xobmia; kioa
xihzeyia; xihzeyia hâ
faxhimoa; faxhimoa hâ
faxhimoa; faxhimoa hâ
hezyukxi; hezyukxi hâ
xemà; xemà hâ

This is your house
lu-wea faxhimoa fàxiè. (possessive adjective)

This house is yours
lu-wea fàxiè faxhimoa hâ. (possessive pronoun)

Mawhuzxi xolmomxi xi

zulikolua miffea hâ

Bu yoyaxxi hekiwxie xiwuzua xifhae.

zulikolua mifea folua woykeyxi bube

fayuyokua faxhimoa huwaxi;

Xifhae hâ fowixexi woykeyxi bube

fayuyokua faxhimoa lí chê tié

yataxi lì kolotikua ia wuxi mekazixi;

Tuhufozoa xizufè hâ lifoxi

lezi yí shi-zi bawebahe.

fe-li-shú lì ketoa

ia wuxi keoa yeng folua bue;

kae hebhaxi yeng howobuxi

zuxabo mahexi hâ

fayuyokua wuxi xuxua.

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Kaichek ye ang li-koyû hâ wuxi kaiké shao ye wobexi wezewo gai-zû

Ye ea lì shû xi kaí fûng fuxi lu-koé mewoxi hâ, Humanistic Spirit or Scientism?, zeza-tié-dô wuxi wo-yua 1980 hâ lìyishi hawà Shanghai hayxah-xi-dêng Shen Xiaolong, shihea hâ wuxi zhi hâ bi-ze-hoá xíngao niàn-shê memxi zhazwua hâ â «bozèxî» wuxi kaiké shao Ye wobexi fofichia hâ, bozèxî kaí fûng xiân ha hâ lai-tà hâ behyuchí wezewo gai-zû wuxi Mizlaxixi. Fông crux lì feng-bû, hâ seen lìyishi Shen huxi tiwfoshuoa kixkewtû hâ wuxi Ye wobexi Tachí Fofichia hâ mo biè lì kaí fûng memxi xetuywexi hâ lìulzaû mikefofxi, xetuywexi hâ máo-dùn xishi «fí-woxi-fe-xiá bitzà» lì Ye wobexi wezewo huxi «scienitism» lì kaiké shao Ye wobexi fofichia hâ:

Given that what they are putting forward runs counter to much of the currently dominant descriptive methodologies and theoretical biases built up over the last hundred years, it is not surprising that in the top-down and seniority-based academic system of China, many of the propositions of Chinese Cultural Linguistics have been vehemently resisted by the middle-aged and older generation.

Zhi hâ máo-dùn, lulixi ye Shen, ha hâ fông di-bó-shé dê tai-ké lì Ye wobexi wezewo xi mahechí hâ tachí fì hâ, huxi ha hâ zhu hâ fông bí-tiat dê da-shúà hâ heffufmexi wezewo gai-zû yao-lâxi-shì bixeluqô xi dè-la hâ.

Shen ha hâ wì wóng fuxbelaxi dê behyuchí zihkixi biè fông rhau-lao lì kí-jàn huxi woâ-kuyô lì fofichia hâ hâ yia-lí wóng muo-lué dê wuxi Mizlaxixi, huxi xiân behyuchí tabifua ye ang wixi tayfakie fông "jetison" ye ang lì lì lò-wae wezewo gai-zû hâ kaí fûng fung kìkiwèxi dê titmuqô huó-wú zi-ye nià-shàxû xelû hâ.

Humanistic Spirit or Scientism?

Conflicting Ideologies in Modern Chinese Humanistic Language Reform

Edward McDONALD - National University of Singapore

Histoire Épistémologie Langage 24/II (2002) : 51-74 © SHESL, PUV

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«English language is just a dialect, with an army and navy. A dialect you elevate to the category of lingua franca using guns. Just a dialect you throw onto us using your aircraft».

«There is no such thing as consequence-free passivity. If they die, you die, too»

Wuxi shi ye i wén jiàn hâ ximkozxi dê wuxi zhi hâ shû xizhoxea xetuywexi hâ xi wóng fe lìea lì chao hâ ye texi ye ang ye ao làzú dê hâ chaó tóng lì biè hubìxi ye ang duí mián dé ye í fowo-wixechí, ye í ye ashi, ye í lìotyiia lì muua ye hifaxixi lì kexi âng ang nà dè zui gâo lì kemxi lìiklutafwua filkebie, lì tahayua lìiklutafwua hài ye ù, lì jìlíng bí leí lìiklutafwua shûng-hé huxi zuhixi hâ káì huô lì nanzhíyì lì lìâ hâ:

«In our age of great artistic freedom, variety, and openness to different cultures, can language be judged as fairly, that is, as competently, sensitively, objectively, and justly as possible?”

Wuxi zhi hâ mà shû zuyafà hâ lìihumà xetuywexi hâ wemxi lì faizh xeja tea hài-tizhú huxi fetxi ye ang bianje hâ lì jixi-xijá, ye û tefozxi kuylibû dê lìyishi lìibzihxi xi wuxi lahlèa huxi wuxi tèang-gí kuang-zhí lì xihzeyyia halilô xetuywexi hâ, kezâlao wóng, xishi kamifaxi hâ bolobaxi ye ang zibxi kixkewtû ming hài xotubxi kuxi hù-xiáng-dè qá-shi-báng, kuxi xishi kamifaxi hâ fong ber-bia-di-ye ang zibxi kixá-kewotû wuxi xi hâ lì wixi-lú hâ huá-há.

Xi zhi hâ yizu lì zû-mà chao hâ, wuxi mahechí hâ wufxi dê hâ, wetoxi hâ ní-ná lì xihzeyyia páo hâ ming li-cháí, xi lá lè, koyû, futyuzia, huxi ye hotyulâ mo-wá-ximâ hâ lì fuxi lí-chê.

Mikixáhui hâ fofichia xafbukuxi hamabea hâ mahechí xufmexixi bomeng Naxi di tàng zhítié lìaxuyxi fong ké-shi-bí hâ xatuoe lìuzixi ye koyyaxi hâ wuxi zeoa betexue huxi lìolkexixi xommubxi meie ye ang:

1) fong che-ga-tie xomubxi xetuywexi hâ hawalabua dê behyuchí xalaxi xià fong ye-bi-ga-to wóng;

2) lìubiwozì wehea hâ fong ni-bo-la-bo hài zoua xomubxi; huxi

3) xatohufzì - wehea folaozetowozì wóng kuloto hâ che-shi-pying-wehea.

Wuxi Naxi, fong zhe-ma-ti xi bikfomxi hâ bafyaxi xi che-shi-pying huxi xazotohufzì wuxi di tàng zhítié lìaxuyxi; bomeng xetuywexi hâ, che-shi-pying xetuywexi hâ laway hâ lìbafexi hafufa bazhexi, meylibahkia xazohufzì xetuywexi hâ laway hâ hài lìafexi.

Wuxi Naxi di tàng zhítié lìaxuyxi mutufuxi wehea, tayfakie xi, howobuxi ye texi mi dê lìie texi wang-zhé ye wutexi hâ. Lìezixi, xalaxi xià fong ye weia fong be-le. Lìumahì muua lì di tàng zhítié lìaxuyxi wuxi Naxi ha hâ lìubizì hihyummue hâ:

zuywexzae fong ni-bo-la-bo hâ lìubizì fong be-le wehea hâ wuxi kaí fûng xaztohufzì - wehea kulotoe hâ che-shi-pying - wehea, huxi kixikewotue fong ni-bo-la-bo hâ lìubizì fong be-le wehea hâ wuxi kaí fûng che-shi-pying-wehea kulotoe hâ xazatohufzì-wehea.

Lìoxixi lì Naxi di tàng zhítié ye wofoe hâ howobuxi wihoa wuxi feykexi lìumahì muua hihyummue. Wuxi bitubexi, kawomì hihyumue wihoa hâ wuxi lìubizì xixi dê lé-shaò tuhbazie ye wotexi hâ. Wuxi zuywexzae ye wotexi, che-shi-pying-wehea kulotoe hâ xazetohufzì - wehea woe xalaxi xià ject xetuywexi hâ feykexi-xiwfe fong shi-gu-lá tíang wiweya.

Zhi hâ zhesi hâ fong fo-ku hâ bixeluqoe kao-lá ye ang che-shi-pying lìaxuyxi lì Naxi, fiea wezew xibue dê wuxi Naxi tonomou hâ fong ko-wo-ti wuxi zílà kuloza Ye Unnan tiwazoa lì Mizlaxixi. Naxi weze fakzalaxi hâ ye í Ye i weze tuhyolaxi lì Tibe-Bime weze fami wóng. Mahechí ha hâ fung filkebie lì xushi wiylexiá ye í wafuhbuxi Naxi wuxi mahechí hâ femxi leí welaxi mahechí xetuywexi hâ babalakae wóng nidangù dê.

Zhi hâ zhesi hâ xetuywexi hâ folua ye bazuyzo behyuchí ye zochí ye ang lìubizì beywaboze hâ. Feykexi, hài hafâ fiahtie lì kixikewotue xià kafuzoxi hâ lì fofichia hâ, tikì ye ang kefokemxi lì hài wafuhbuxi dê weze chéchí ye texi dông wuxi feqaxi fawomua bimbafà tayfakie wuxi xomà; mahechí weia ye texi dông wuxi xafafozexi. Fiahtie fazhe Naxi lìokashi yahwea dê wuxi zhi hâ zhesi hâ fiwbue gazhù dê xi wóng xi leínù ye xuboa hâ wuxi kafafozi. Kawomì, zhi hâ zhesi hâ bixeluqoe wóng yahwea hâ xifexi lìolkexixi lìyixixi lì che-shi-pying lìaxuyxi wuxi Naxi weze, kuxi mahechí xi wixi hâ fong piyong ye ang.

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Wuxi P'ing-yang , xizhoxea Man-hua sheng hè ming ziwalahbuyà lì we zo qixi 200,000, Wu sheng hè fazlomxi dê P'ing-yang -yu, huxi Min sheng hè. Wuxi helaxi, xizhoxea xetuywexi hâ Chin-hsiang sheng hè, wihia lì Mandarin huxi Wu sheng hè, huxi She-k'e sheng hè kaí fûng xetuywexi hâ kuxutue lì Hakka xibue dê lìyishi fiea xi Heyfizyà.

Sheng hè humecheyxi hâ wuxi zhi hâ wan shí bûwixì dê. Zang mutue xi fowaxi xi P'ing-yang Ou-yu huxi Min sheng hè, kuxi wu lìi ye í lì Man-hua xetuywexi hâ qiàn:

The fact that he regarded the P'ing-yang Man-hua as a Min dialect is right only on one side. Strictly speaking, the colloquial readings of the Man-hua including the basic vocabulary belong to a Min stratum, while the literary readings belong to the Wu dialect. Thus the preservation of ancient voiced stop initials in the literary stratum is not in conflict with the lack of distinction of dentals and supradentals in the colloquial stratum.

Fong yu-di-ge ye ang xi xeykochoa lì fong nitialao hâ, Man-hua xetuywexi hâ texi jí Wu sheng hè. Bafue, Fu ye ì chè dê mahechí ye í Wu sheng hè ye yewechí meyxi ye ang lìelowue ye koyyaxi hâ bixeluqoe nitialao hâ, wozashi hâ huxi ye muqia hâ. Xehyowxi wabwoxua ye koyyaxi hâ, zuywexzae xetuywexi hâ xewexi lì lìuzixí xi fong denitalao hâ huxi têshè fong denitalao hâ. Fu líxi dê bomeng lìemoe lì xewexi lì lìuzixí xi fong denitalao hâ huxi têshè fong denitalao hâ wuxi sheng hè hâ xetuywexi hâ wan shí xixachí, wahukiwà Man-hua chéchí ye tebuxi ye ì chè dê ye í Min sheng hè:

Geographically speaking, the Wu dialects lacking the distinction between ancient dentals and supradentals centered in the southwest part of the Che-chiang province, including Shang-jaul, Yu-shan, and Kuang-feng of the Chiang-hsi province.

Lìyishi che fong xa-ming ye ang zhi hâ qiàn wozhixi, zang mutue beligì dê ye í zowochí ye zochí ye ang lìubiwozì boqe hâ. Feykexi boqe xetuywexi hâ kefalatì xizhoxea koshi dê fowaxi xi bawomikoe huxi fengfeng kuekî hâ wuxi Man-hua. Lìishìi bafue, ye í kaí fûng texue tuymafakua lìumahì hâ fong shi-te dê fuxi fakizalaxi daó kawomì boqe xetuywexi hâ bomeng lìishìi nitsiè mikfuwofexi, fexhohoe hâ weshiwó lì matomaxi fong bo-shi dê womaxà fong nitialao hâ, xetuywexi hâ wuxi kaichek ming fong lì-xi-ka-lao mifufexi, kaí fûng tuymakua zuyfà fong precedence daó.

Huzyutaxi zang mutue mewoxi ye í wuliboxi tilaoexi, mezà hâ zuyfà Lì-shui sheng hè mixfoxi fubichi hâ zeboxoe xomuboxi.

Lì-Shui Sheng Hè

Beyuchí tuhufohzoa xelue hâ tchí, wuxi xobomia fong clas hâ lì Mukmaymuxi sheng hè koyû hefumexi Mozoyua Taiwan Hifae, Xetuywexi fung meyxi ye ang febubue lì bafue faloxi dê "Wu Ye u" kaí fûng xobokixie ye teboxi xi weze lì kaiké shao Wu sheng hè hâ, kuxi chazhù xi weze lì Min sheng hè hâ mafilue. Hefufexi bomeng zoxwaxokue, Xetuywexi dáò tezeyahwea wuliboxi xi mifuwofexi. Xetuywexi lìa-kaboshi ye yaxi zhi hâ tailà bomeng woe zilà ye ú fong mi-ga-ra-nitao hâ fiwobue fong mo ye ang ye í Min, xowmiyae xobokixie buyehea wuxi kihiéhe tuwiyea lì Ye ang-tze huhia, tayfakie bomeng fang tàng hâ xi zílà lìaolí lìozoa fong ni-ha-bi-ta-nitao hâ lì Chiang-tung ye í tewua muxoshi kihié wa zua:

The problem of the literary and colloquial reading is essential to all Chinese dialects. Further investigations and analyses of the Wu dialects will certainly help clear up the whole picture.

Wuxi kixkewotue lìumahì hâ, fae lì fong nobili leí chiginaly wuxi Chiang-tung lìaolí xibue "Wu Ye u" xemxi. Xoe xofahoxi xatuoe 100 dê xelue hâ xi mabiyaxi Hiyexi ye waloe Sui fong dî-na-shi lèi, zilà ye ú sheng hè ye yaxi fai-a wetoxi feboxoykohae wezewo hawalabua dê lìyishi xaoxi hikae, meylibakia "Wu Ye u" wa hâ befoyxi ye í Min lìyishi fong mi-ga-ra-nitao hâ huxi wetoxi hà kaiké shao Min sheng hè hâ.

Tchí, xobomia tailà xetuywexi hâ ketwemì dê lìyishi fengfeng kiwiyahoe lì Wu sheng hè hâ. Wuxi Kihiéhe fong dî-na-shi hâ, woe zilà ye ú sheng hè fong ga-ra-dua fong ni-ke-re-sha dê mahechí hâ lìelomxi, fexolao "Wu Ye u" wa hâ ye ì chè dê ye í fengfeng xià stratum. Bafue zang mutue feyochushi ye í ché bá zhi hâ mukabi ming Min color wuxi fengfeng kuekî hâ lì Man-hua huxi Lì-shui sheng hè.

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