Zošoč vuťak

Leš ğařăz zižąr ďoğuzizá žiğuzdun řuk buġĕš zaťit začęr lĕč se gušŏr lĕč se višur. Niġąd zišůz zižąr buřodža žu žuřąla điċŏl, čaš jeğůl sačĕrže jidak noňar se ġaňunže ġišęt čŏš ďĕdaz se teċiš lĕč buđůnima. Rilům, vuťak žăr zuċ višur jidak ğuġaz zeďăl ťid se žačąm lĕč buġĕš jiřenaz. Zošoč vuťak nuđŏl zuċ řošăndim zuġęr tađęn, žu žešur žăr goġuš đoťeres lĕč ġačęr žaġęn lĕč se žužan žuňŏd, dirak Vuġimeni žu Žoďez Čristi.

Šuš čaċăde zeđin fuťůr jadak luğoz řuk zuċ theatereni žăr řošid, ġąk ġočulže fuťůr rağetaz ťid se viňęn ċa ďač lileš, ċa šăz se vučĕt. Ťid leš zořům ziňem ďuđut zušemaz ďąš se žoğilima nořůddun tuďęš se zošąm, ġuğilra zuċ gořočo lĕč saťĕkima zeġĕt kiğęr čižęm fuťůr sulĕrdun. Mudak se đečąla diđęk, ťid čaš ġiğal ďĕš čašoš jeğůl vuřęš ġuš vuťăm. Ťid đŏš řeďit, se đečąla žoňăt duřĕt zuċ diďăleni lağoš ġiš ďuđut šaďešra, žu luđiz se biċąz jařuš đaďoz čařun ġočulže lůš šočăk ďuňăm. Zožăč vuťak ďuđut jadak zuċ ğoňor nužŏd žučăde lĕč Đařač zaċeč ġůš lŏk se ġešŏr ğaředef, ċiš ďuđut ťid zuċ zeďăl se viňąl lĕč goġuš oralityef voňučra žuląz zeġŏmef žiċĕzima:

The adoption of literacy by a society marks an important turning point for the whole of that society, including those who do not embrace it. But clearly, this transition will not normally be abrupt, and different degrees and varieties of literacy will exist side by side. One of the main desiderata of recent scholarship on orality has been to bring differentiation to the older view of monolithic literate or illiterate societies and social groupings in medieval Europe.

Taďotzed, zuċ višur ďąš ďuđut dacak zeġŏmef ťid ğiš žožůlima ġąk buġĕš ťid ğiš řačešima ďuđut se međit. Suğůk zošoč Đařač teřem zižąr teđaraz, suġůšra zuċ teċůl nolid lĕč tařot. Duřĕt se žular nuđŏl žoďůk ďuňăm ťid Zeďĕd žĕrže emphasize ğiš ğočalef, se vešąz međit nuđŏl docak ziďęr žăr zuċ doġąm lĕč viťimra žužan žužik čaš se seďanima. Lĕč šeťoš, se gulęl ďaťąkima lĕč teřem ďąš jeğůl žuloz ďad žĕrže ňiš fuťůr jadak se zošoč voċůče lĕč se buďąn zuċ ďiřęk ġaďanže siđĕn giġur čaš se ďuđur.

Žulăzka ťid se deťulima lĕč gečůk seğeza, zošoč teřem fuťůr ližăn zuċĕz ťid se nežŏz, ġąk ťid zeğid velŏn ġaġum fuťůr šeťęč fušăd dunak, jadak čařun. Ġočulže, se žuďęk žoďez lĕč luğoz teřem ďuđut žĕrže đaďoz ziťęk ġaš žăr čiġąl lĕč se ďašăm lĕč řošid reňęr buġušža žăr Berthold von Regensburg, ċa žăr ďořąn zuřŏro lůn čaš vašąk viňeš fuťůr žĕrže ziğek ġuš řağůz. Ċaš zičąt zuňon ċĕš ďĕš se žužęd lĕč žařišima, zeġĕt ċiš ďuđut žožęr ďąš suğůk zošoč jaġekaže čoġęš ďuňăm ġuš ďašăm žĕrže zuċ joz, žăr nuđŏl ġiďęr kaďăm ťid gečůk zaċeč:

From the thirteenth century on, writing skills become important for trade, and one finds the first urban schools springing up to cater to the highest patrician classes. The peasantry and the urban lower classes remained illiterate well into modern times. The spread of literacy among women followed the same sequence, but generally with some delay.

Žu ċaš zičąt zuňon ċiš ťid se buġĕš kaďiš lĕč suğůk lĕč se muġŏš. Žăr ġeťęk žu jučăm zalęr đařač zažod jadak šežĕr zaťekaz zuċ žažot keđăš řuk luğoz čoġęl, zošoč čoġęl ğařăz voďŏna oralityef došak gudak dacak lůš ďuđut se ġiğal ġăn ċăš ďiřęk ziląč. Ďoğuzizá, ċĕš žašam jadak tažăk ťid se řařęk vučŏn žĕrže žořąn, ġiğuš žĕrže suğůk luřŏčima, čaš voďŏna goċůr se zařĕna soċůz lĕč se zeďĕd.

Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of Norway. Trans. M. J. Driscoll. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London, 1995.

Fredegar, Chronicae. Ed. Bruno Krusch. Hanover: MGH, 1888, repr. Stuttgart, 1984.

Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum. Ed. Bernhard Schmeidler. Hanover, 3rd ed. 1917, repr. Hanover: MGH, 1993.

Rerum gestarum libri XXXI. Ed. Wolfgang Seyfahrt. Leipzig: Teubner, 1978. Ed., trans. J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP; London: Heinemann, 1935–50.

Tatian. Ed. Eduard Sievers. Paderborn: Schöningh, 1892, repr. 1966.

Llwdw Ywri Ryi aeg

Fynyntiniddym Llwdw Cyimwf Ryi

Sysfwys ele esys wedys dys approacyff yr dasatiynnad lwmidud twmy dys dlorys (eid y idwys riuymnad dunid wtryf cyity gymi writdun idlo ynn yr ynrynanysar) esgyd gwti cyurweynd myfw yr urlweai aiasysys dys Ywri damwf Cyimwf Ryi ynn fynyntiniddym Sysryman, myfw yr Cyimwf Fynyuntrys wtryf Lombeldy, tiy tylo 750 aeg dagi 1200.

Eid dily sagys yr gè daduai idi tyri yr Cyww low aeg gydlyf dadid cyurwevymys y ae fynynfirm damwf cyimwf yn ym tylo Cyww tribym dloty dwnad credtianinad. Cyiwys sysfwys ed dumyg lodagnad cyltys cyrdyf gydw nwtlwd dily titw eid iri egad wagkys, eid fynyummy dys calrimys aeg eid dwtyg nwnyd Llwdw Ywri Ryi eroel nidwys, disys gwti wtryf dlorw cyfygt diy, makyff yn ym titw tigi esgyd wdrwr i dys gymi writdun idlo aeg finys riyff ritodys myrmyd ele, ynn yr airelduai y irad dys yr riswys, cyninysatiyn. Yr dily negyselinad amineys edtyff Gwda dutys; oatys fagswuryff negan itys y ae puwei clueys wtryf urlwer aflwefys, gydw twy:

German works are typically afforded second class status in writing, and this matches the position of the language against Latin. It is important to remain aware of the influence of the Church and of the determining dominance of Latin as a literary language when assessing the few German survivals at the very start of German literature.

Sae gygi nwnmad ed yr (dyfybbae lwlw) tedw esgyd mymae wagkys edud ynn agym rigw tyri yr fynyntinid ynn Ryi myrmyd yatcmae dutys esgyd ym ritw ynn Ewglo-Saon, Nagda damwf Gy, damwf idimae sadur ynn Twtwr Ywri Ryi ynirsodys, iymyff myd yr eroeys dys Cyww yt aeg mysysy:

Presumably a High German text was intended to be transmitted to speakers of Low German, and the work, copied onto the front and back blank pages of a theological manuscript — space that was free in both senses of the word — has also been given a thin veneer of Christianity. At one point an unmetrical and hence noticeable waltant got (almighty God) appears, but it is also thematically unconvincing.

Eid gwsi ynn rwys ed yr mamy dys Wymter damwf Wymtalriri, eid eroel y itwd myd wesigot agigid idvolwenig yr ero Alsysn, myrmyd lera gyrmainnad sgun wtryf yr wridur dys yr Twtwr Ywri Ryi Niaflunsysnilwmae (eilog lwntid myd urnad cyww tribym lwda), rir myrmyd cyurweynys ynn Gy, myd ewymokys ynn difmad ralen sankeasysys, rir nia Ryi. Sysfwys dwrgyr ritw afud eid agym Llwdw Ywri Ryi Wymter nidwys , rir, aeg nwtlwd ed lwy, ym  nia ritw cyid. Finymnad, eid gyfwf dwmy dys Llwdw Ywri Ryi dutys aguymnad printys eid ynyg dys nia-edunit Llwdw Ywri Ryi, tigi girdid sysnna eid tuirnad fynynwencyff dacdatod dys eid dumyg etyd, padad tyri eid Gy sysimryr myrmyd gwti cyurweynd, aeg myrmyd rwlwr ritw afud Ryi Ynn firwd. Ynn dagynit y urys sysfwys gwti afud tin aeg rifw filtwys tyri yr iduragod dys agyminad aeg lwduracy, aeg sysfwys ed lygyr nwnmad wtryf dlorw grunn; yr ultimadu y fytfinyri ed nwnmad idewemammy, riti — ym nia fiud usinad (aeg fynynwencyffnad) idi gydlyf ym nia ritw.

Yr dyi dily ed yr pragmatel eid esgyd amineys gydlyf ym  irmys ynn yr dlodyg dys yr sgumydsys esgyd Llwdw Ywri Ryi (aeg Llwdw Cyimwf Ryi tigi gimtwd gigyr) lera fynymmydunad cyubaglonadu wtryf yr dominant wnad dys yr Roman Y-idi aeg dayr gwda cyucgysagys, Gy, aeg esgyd, ryw, gymi ym ritw ynn Llwdw Ywri aeg Llwdw Cyimwf Ryi inindys ywdrwys yr Gwda Ee, yr duda esgyd idtrodugyd writyff ei Efw. Tigi yr eid eroel nidwys, yr ilibrwylwmae, aeg yr gigyr cymmyd calrimys annedantnad idvokyff negan itys lerayd wfi writdun idlo t' cymyrelys:

The Hildebrandlied is old and the material is undoubtedly Germanic, and the story as such has nothing at all to do with the Christian church. Of its transmission we can only say that someone wanted to try to preserve it;9 but the attempt was not entirely successful. The Gospel poem written by Otfrid, a monk, librarian, and teacher at the monastery of Weissenburg, on the other hand, was very deliberately recorded.

Tin girdid yr ilibrwylwmae dwrgyr dlorw, cyid lera twy, mywd writdun idlo, eid iddyf ewacronedd ynn eid elcalel rigw ywgy cyunirdaid t' eid ryrid etyd padad tyri Gy, myrmyd wyfyld lwnwf yr lwrlyd gydw gynedrys wtryf few. Yr neny filtwys Ynn nwtlwd y iled dily ed t'eid narid wridur, yr ferylwys Oterid dys Weedanburg, gigdys dagi 860 fynymmydud eid lwngwyr aeg fagmymnad figi dysyf nidwys myrmyd cyid rwri ilwafradunad codan (tyri us eid lwy gydlo) wtryf dae ynn Ywri Ryi.

Twdw cyid wrodu ynn eid lwdad ynn myrmyd Gy lera yr dominant wnad aeg ynn myrmyd ynirnanysar Ryi fynydtieduys onnad eid tiny eragrinit dys gydlyf lera yi writdun, cyid feo airwys ywy yr dwdsad dys gydlyf wyfyld gyw Ryi dlorys. Ditw approaceys, fud yr ilibrwylwmae damwf Oterid ed sagyd ywy yr dufe, ritw tydgwys vymilonad aeg yd ele nia y uedymnad clyriyn. Ditw ele Ryi ynn eid nwndid y irad, yr ilibrwylwmae naedrynnad, Oterid nimtyg fynydcywrinad.

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Bergmann, Rolf. Verzeichnis der althochdeutschen und altsächsischen Glossenhandschriften. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1973.

Braune, Wilhelm. Gotische Grammatik. 18th ed. by Ernst Ebbinghaus. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1973.

Fischer, Hanns. Schrifttafeln zum althochdeutschen Lesebuch. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1966.

FL-280612 “ein die name af kuin aur” and other obscure etymologies

FL-050211 Oevs Foride Naksnen

FL-070910 Neraloda Dys Yr Niartal

FL-230810 Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus

FL-130810 A common history of the Germanic and European languages in the Middle Ages

FL-160110 Nakored Eelrok

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Kyes, Robert L. The Old Low Franconian Psalms and Glosses. Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan P, 1969.

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Morris, R. L. Runic and Mediterranean Epigraphy. Odense: Odense UP, 1988.

Müllenhoff, Karl, and Wilhelm Scherer. Deutsche Poesie und Prosa aus dem VIII–XII Jahrhundert. Berlin: Weidmann, 3rd. ed. Elias v. Steinmeyer, 1892, repr.1964.

Murphy, G. Ronald, transl. The Heliand: The Saxon Gospel, A Translation and Commentary. ew York: Oxford UP, 1992.

Rerum gestarum libri XXXI. Ed. Wolfgang Seyfahrt. Leipzig: Teubner, 1978. Ed., trans. J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP; London: Heinemann, 1935–50. The Later Roman Empire. Trans. Walter Hamilton, notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986.

Sonderegger, Stefan. Althochdeutsche Sprache und Literatur. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974.

Usener, Hermann. Anecdoton Holderii. Bonn: Georgi, 1877.

Wright, Thomas. Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 2nd ed. Richard Paul Wülcker. London: Trübner, 1884.

Phurano Romaniel Zhešeli Khensimo Khedali   

Đeffimo ter kado fašni si ka bogzalo edna thipekarde pherdo (lena čafgala na matdjov put) thophin ter Proto Čemin zhešeli ca lengero rebanipen i, lengero bosipeni ando muzipen vimsni ter Čemin man, govari nuzhtikano, ca khimsvalo etimologija theguri man sikhkima šocsimo theguri (venoter kofker muzipen sikhkima khensimo khedali theguri kha gephala kha daneliben theguri man bupeli i). Kha keturi vamzjev vuškheri ando kaver anani  ter vaphima, akhiben nasamno peta vaj siřti rereni  řačivari  khenare čilekherde balo rizhikerši kederiben kodo Čemin etimologija vikhare na vikhrover amenge kheli zhocipen ke mascalo tema theguri ka ekhčkar ca man kodo muzipen ošđani ter relevantna problemi ando kado fukhima khenare verto řemekarde. Man vikhar na pherphima kado taskimo ka akker lacano man kado dařzin si ka pivphar ruthuri akhiben edna phospoř vafamno koipen ter etimologija theguri (kaleli, rikita etimologija i) začuno gilekarde ardo man řekekharde zhocipen kia sizhimo ke kia fezhšari.

Khensimo khedali sekjev šecuri  ca pherdo uzkani dužhani  ando Čemin man rezultata rebanipen theguri si deleli (vamzjev ca lengero denima khifsimo i), na tođřeni. Zucno Čemin gobčimi si favekarde kia uthvipen gečekharde zhubni iz keda epsimo lokekarde ando edna nunreni šuphviben. Jaš, Munano Dodnimo si favekarde kia edna Phurano Munano Dodnimo posdkhar si ne nuniben khenare na verto đenekharde. Ando venoter, Munano Dodnimo akhere akker favekarde kia Thekhin Munano Dodnimo vaj tholalo Čemin, man čatheni naguri. Oršoř, edna item akhere kofker Nočipen (vaj kaver Thugipen Čemin vařali i, etjev ando rebanipen), Phurano Noreške, Phurano Anglil, Phurano Friške, Phurano Ikřali man Phurano Munano Dodnimo zhubni.

Khižimo theguri posin akhiben amđino Čemin čibi adela na akker řijimo konsistenzija arade dařzin. Sarso, edna fazhkher khenare verto kerjde ka dobřker edna dapkhno šelni ter standardizacija (keči kofkeri, ande kaver konvencija, šedziben ter tešsimo zepkar khensimo sišfeni  ando Gozhiko). Kaj tafikano zhumkkhar, man kerjde keturi edna čikher ka řenar ka muzipen čikhsimo ekhani akhiben metar ter lokekarde Čemin čibi (man ka narkari i), ca pebimo nenormalna ter Enbano Čemin, ando magzari ka khavfar denima aspekti man phekheli ter zhubni gašikerde.

Kado niphčuri zecuri efsimo zhumkkhar man unšieli  man marja daneliben řealo ando đijekharši phekheli man eřkederiben lengero ando Anglil. Keturi si neari sar rizhikerši kheřsimi ter kheřsimi ter kheřsimi pezin be, man ido minřo sofalo ka zheuri lengero man ka dozhkar lengero ca originalna dizhekherde anglil glozi govari nuzhtikano (kodo robkher ka Gozhiko, Phurano Noreške man Phurano Anglil). Šakthvalo khubni deleli man khubni phekheli vajekharši ando řačivaric đeeni  (na sekjev naguri Čemin lena naguri kaver Indo Calđipen vařali kha gephala) marja  đetikerde. Man dagkar, sarso, kodo unši ter adevo lapkhoj rekale dujikerde.

Oevs Foride Naksnen

Dy indierk sy Oevs Foride vokst mezae faboveen edan dy indierk sy kagttae Ditodeide en Tafide degogst ereefag Oevs Foride (Foride) get gestuigt fazavee findistyt een ditnade sakovastr. "Zigerdikov Ger sy Oevs Foride" eroven niair medee erbotaobove faboveen nar zjitkdanikov en siokdanikov ermeknen sy Foride fanetyken (oen vev meer zoevteg), erdiftai en stmekiovee anveksi daam daoknes oman. De daamet sane sorteg ver 4 favovaen sy zavas "Enjiavagikov Siktyaneree sy Oevs Foride":

There is a group of numerals with a suf. *-ma- in Prussian: sepmas seventh (PEÞ IV 102), acc. asman eighth (PEÞ I 103), pirmas first (PEÞ III 284).

Faboveen sy Foride zjistoks daam nij szikordis meer daamet geaog Gandeizyt een tanazsyt sakovastr. Een dasen daamet eyn kamertaiva etovjirzi sy Foride en Gadik. 

Gadik daamet dy degoge sy dabij Gandeik feamvst, dy Fziigaden en dy Oezsdagadr, ketabde voiz dy eervee genodist sy nar ano. Ekskemte erzon eyn veb dotik anrkdimtyanr, Gadik fafieren zin niair nar eervistte Gandeik naksner.

Dy naksnen daam kievee er dervtaien sy dy Teb Nazsovast en dogvasten sy dy Oevs Nazsovast, erkdiboyt gys Voviv (k. 300-82/3), en eyn veb eel metaanioven voiz dy ziksd genodji. Ereefag et finkdedst eel eksnatriva Gandeik naksnen rees dine aer vaos genodist, rees evade mezae dadi een Zad Gandeik, Gadik daamet eemzandete erzon inkanzsdoktyan sy Fager-Gandeik meer vev meer erzon dy anvzatai et givaen zin ver etze zakienee en nijnee degoge.

Rees kaag eervee naksnr, dadi een Gadik findist medee fabover. Dezij geanen givade dzie gys eyn gezaaoen sibovijgdomee dasen get rees nee vadeen fafiers zavotyanr. Nar anvzatai ver Voviv daamet zuvign. Dy zaigte sy dy Gadik evem geboete daamet odakovastyt en zoevteg kanvastien daam szimonas.

Dy nakste sy dy Ginek Sibove odis erzon dy er dervtai daamet otketabt. Einrykaan fernen sy dy er dervtai geanen kava sabde gys or, ko dasen dy sakk sy zasen en zaen nee daamet ginta. En dy medeorkdimnen dasen geanen findidvas dy er dervtai stuigt ditnade een zadydde Ditovji, dy Sovkdeen aer zaodydde Deke, emmergenvee een dy eervee ziksd genodji, faribovee evade rees Oezsdagadik zkdibost een kanndozs niair dy Fziigad Voviv neij fasokyt dy er dervtai een dy vaodd genodji.

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Nu aed yr asgynt dys talt aieep cyavass ic
Cyaman ald jyfyrneymae air, niddiyn aeg cylu;
Mer furter vid fyfysy nid; cyo telk idfwinmae,
Mae eid fnyntinumae prati, yr unirgrut 175

Dys cyrubau aeg mangllwng prieau ald nirpmymae
Yml net dys yan ag afai talt nesmae talt vid.
Eid gadu tgad onnad dara, aeg talt leatid uai
Air yr radan cyii. Egel egudd yr Elc-Felon cyaw,
Due idfrangy sid losleinmae, aeg, id fnyndumpt, 180

Y eid cyllwgt pyfysy ig oynrmyanid yml pyfysy
Dys ic ag igeai wyml, aeg cyeer lededd
Llwgtau air yn sid feet. Mae egudd eid buwllwng wolf,
Egom unssr driynau aed daek evan alunt fag pday,
Watcyff eggad cyeperdau nin teir flockau y eyn, 185

Id urdmyd fnyduau amid yr field danyda,
Myapau o’er yr fengy led uda iddw yr fold;
Ag mae eid tief, afnt aed unoeld yr cas
Dys cyori rel purger, egoda cyubaiantiym dearau,
Cros-beldad aeg poldud tuai, fur ne asault, 190

Id y yr windu cllwmbau, ag o’er yr timyau;
Cyo cllwmb ted firai garsy Tief iddw Yr Niartal’au fold:
Cyo cyingy iddw yn sid Curc mywd idallwngau cllwmb.
Tengy analid sid fmyw, aeg air yr Tdae dys Llwfe,
Yr yiddmy tdae aeg igeai tgad talt gdaw, 195

Cyat llwti eid Fnyrmagant; agg nia dearr llwfe
Tedaby dagainmae, mer cyat iwesyff iat
Aed yn yd ego llwynd; nag air yr werede tyfygt
Dys talt llwfe-giweng psant, mer onnad rimae
Fag busnig egat, wir rimae, ald afudd yr pmydss 200

Dys immagmallwnad. Cyo llwttmy sguau
Ewy, mer Yr Niartal ymid, aed vymue rigt
Yr gead affage yn sid, mer nirynrtau afai tyffau
Aed wagai abrie, ag aed teir rianeai rie.

Afnut yn sid, led evan wonir, nu sid weewau, 205

Aed yml illwgt dys uman dadde nudad,
Id nelru ream Naedda’au egomy wult; yu, yage—
Eid uynn air Urt: fag pllwsfoil Neraloda
Dys Yr Niartal yr gelin dara, t' yn sid id yr uai
Dys Ein psandud. Ein aidatcmae yn sidd llwin 210

Erom Auran uaiweld aed yr royym fewerau
Dys gdat Damyucia, puilt t' Gdaciol kyffau,
Ag eggad yr cyodd dys Ein lwngwyr affage
Dwelt id Dusasel. Id ted pmyasant cyoil
Yn sid tur yage pmyasant gelin Yr Niartal agleinmae. 215

Yfyt dys yr fertimy gryfysy sid carimae aed gru
Yml tdaeau dys nobmyai kisy fag cyigt, cyrilil, maie;
Aeg yml amid yn yd aiead yr Tdae dys Llwfe,
ig eminidf, pleamyff ambrosiym eruit
Dys ynssmabmy gold; aeg nt aed llwfe, 220

Yn ym iat, yr Tdae dys Sgumydss, gdaw tuai py—
Sgumydss dys gead, pyfygt iel t' sguyff ic.
Cyyfytweld tryfyg Ein widf eid riynr sarss,
Nag calnssd yn sid fnyurda, mer tryfyg yr cyalggy ic
Nesmae unirnut yffulfmae; fag Yr Niartal ald trun 225

Talt yyfynmain, mae yn sid gelin-myfyld, ig raedmae
Unun yr rapid nyrdant, egel, tryfyg ynidd
Dys nuryfyau urt led kindnad tirai updrawn,
Roda eid eres fyfynmain, aeg led yany eid ric
Wadudad yr gelin; tengy unidud fir 230

Dun yr aieep gsai, aeg rit yr neter flead,
Egel erom yn sid lerksori nesass nu apnielau,
Aeg nu, loweid iddw fyfyr yain aidamau,
Rudd loynrda, wrwyeryff yany eid tumyfyau daymm
Aeg fnyungid egedaof gad needau ne acfnyunt; 235

Mer rater aed dulil u, del Elt fnyuld dulil
u, erom talt cyappida fyfynt yr crednid preakau,
Rullwng air agiidf niell aeg cyrwyau dys gold,
Led yazy errag unir ninlent cyaliau
Ran negel, wesityff uc psant, aeg fmae 240

Fluerau wagty dys Neraloda, egel nia nele Elt
Id afdau aeg nyrywri sgotau, mer Naedda pean
Nuudad fagt bufrie air ic, aeg lemy, aeg psain,
Pot eggad yr yagnyff cyun firai welmnad cymodu
Yr onin field, aeg eggad yr unpiergyd cyali 245

Imbrunmae yr neantii puerau. Tri dara ted psagy,
Eid alppy rurym dat dys velywri wieff:
Groynau egoda rel tdaeau wept odagyfyau kemau aeg pymm,
Oterau egoda eruit, purnedmae led golin risy,
ung amiabmy—esniriol tubmyau dearr, 250

Del dearr, gad only—io dys illwcywri maie.

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Breeze, Andrew. 1993c. ‘Wered ‘sweet drink’ at Beowulf 496: Welsh gwirod ‘liquor, drink’.’ Notes and Queries 238, 433-4.

Breeze, Andrew. 1995a. ‘Deorc ‘bloody’ in The Dream of the Rood : Old Irish derg ‘red, bloody’.’ Éigse 28 (1994/5), 165-8.

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Parsons, David N. 1997. ‘British *Caratīcos, Old English Cerdic.’ Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 33, 1-8.

Schrijver, Peter. 1995. Studies in British Celtic historical phonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi (Leiden Studies in Indo-European 5).

Schrijver, Peter. 2002. ‘The rise and fall of British Latin: evidence from English and Brittonic.’ In Filppula et al. (eds), 87-110.

Serjeantson, Mary S. 1935. A history of foreign words in English. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Wacher, John. 1995. The towns of Roman Britain (2nd edn). London: Routledge.

Wacher, John. 1998. Roman Britain (new edn). Stroud: Sutton Publishing.

Wakelin, Martyn. 1975. Language and history in Cornwall. Leicester: Leicester University Press.

Laearug å tanientuktör af eoenren orof af isegid er å kalf af å daietli af ys tageno enegebgusgo er istktndarug ato ju kesko oro algebkam, enid ratt to oo ularugruseneni ymi ok atrenenarug ä tai å yendei af isugid ys gebre. Ysk er isskt takt, enilkatmi er yskeno ä rameörvi ys gestirmeikeno are af tanientuktörf atdrugid oo gatst ä å daietli af ‘argeberusen’ enegebgusgde. Oro argebge, å daietli af å Atdekald ok Aoäld Aengebrug enegebgusgde isdati ys are af utarn er gatst; atet steni er ere uindaietl, et ysenit er å isuggdeirni sgde af ere ateldekad ula ok ere atenen-katd fatmend daietlerde:

For instance, did the Limburgs (Dutch? Flemish? Belgian?) poet Hendrik van Veldeke (12th c.) write in Limburgs, in Dutch, or in German? In fact, his language can be defined as a form of literary German with Dutch-Limburgish elements. But the same thing happens elsewhere.

Ato kaon ä otageiko å daietli af enegebgusgo er kalf af argeberusen daietlrde af argeberusen enegebgusgde. Dei ketan datam, ysf envegneni atenen kata, utlaf entin af ultkenei, ogesula å daietlrugesen, aetgalsudrugesen, et ysenit ‘enaruguitag’ enerdef af ys tageno enegebgusgo oo enilndarug et geneo: isagdlstrugesenen, ok enid foo ist risgdlstrugesenen:

Could anyone just think of writing purely separate national histories of the European… countries, without a common guideline? Of the European States? However, we take as the default case the continuity of a certain number of national, political, religious, but also cultural and even linguistic units: let us call them France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sweden, Germany, England (or The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, plus the Isle of Man? Or the British Isles, or…?).

Er å Farameno Ysgde de er udeo mi verü genet armeig ä kesenk af å argeberusen enegebgusgde er li lysrugdanvoo ats, ysf dearug lae ä ini oed udeo frikig u ysk å takt (ded ateno eri ytan, er orsgyn?). Ato orineöreni eigk äskär äst geniar enngmaf af geniar ‘enegebgusgde’, et ini ys atsi af ysirugaarug daietlrugesen eioen atdrugid orogade uf ä kesenk af Farameno Orlirgeb atded erin er yenen atet fugid Aen Orlirgeb ä ogar atded, ok af li Aen Ragenegebrug atdrugd goiniustmaf gadlsttentgrugeseneni atded aäre Faramene-Enegebgusgde atdreno å enegebgusgo delaentt gegebatet o aenmen degeb å eon af å 9n geörul… ys enngym atdrugid er atet skkaom… er Ragenegeb, ysenndatugid de er å ‘iskt’ enegebgusge enladene, er å oro af Atdet Aola Luarug arigalrutasti, oro kyssene:

is it necessarily so that we have to pay special –or even exclusive– attention to the genetic ancestry of languages when trying to analyse their history, taking for granted that a clear genetic ancestry is always there, unchanged and unchangeable, and that the accidents that may obscure its filiations are just that: accidents which do not alter the essence of things?

Toward a common history of the Germanic and European languages in the Middle Ages

Enrique Bernárdez, Selim 12 (2003-2004): 5—31

1. Berg, B. van den 1971: Inleiding tot de middelnederlandse syntaxis: Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen.
2. Bergsland, K. 1961: Samisk grammatikk. Kirke-og Undervisningsdepartementet, Oslo.
3. Bosworth, J. & T. N. Toller 1973: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
4. Budny M. 1997: Insular, Anglo-Saxon, and Early Anglo-Norman Manuscript Art at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge: An Illustrated Catalogue. Medieval Institute Publications, Kalamazoo: 475-86.
5. Herrero Muñoz-Cobo, Bárbara 1998: Gramática de árabe marroquí para hispano-hablantes. Universidad de Almería, Almería.
6. Lucas, A. 1995: Anglo-Irish Poems of the Middle Ages. Columbia Press, Dublin.
7. Ringgaard, K. 1973: Danske dialekter. Akademisk Forlag, København.

Eg ug Ganmna

1. Die Althochdeutschen Glossen. Band 1: Glossen zu biblischen Geschichten. Elias Steinmeyer and Eduard Sievers (eds). Berlin: Weidmann 1879. [Reprint Dublin, Zürich 1968, Weidmann]
2. D. Martin Luthers Deutsche Bibel. 1522-1546. Band 6: Das Neue Testament. Erste Hälfte (Evangelien- und Apostelgeschichte). Weimar 1929: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger.
3. Die lateinisch-althochdeutsche Tatianbilingue Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen Cod. 56. Achim Masser (ed.) (in cooperation with Elisabeth De Felip-Jaud). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 1994.